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The aim of this perspective is to promote the theory of salutogenesis as a novel approach to addressing ophthalmologic inflammatory conditions, illustrating several concepts in which it is based upon and how they can be applied to medical practice. This theory can better contextualize why patients with similar demographics and exposures are not uniform in their clinical presentations. Stressors in daily life can contribute to a state of ill-health and there are various factors that help alleviate their negative impact. These alleviating factors are significantly impaired in people with poor vision, one of the most common presentations of ophthalmologic conditions. Salutogenic principles can guide the treatment of eye conditions to be more respectful of patient autonomy amidst shifting expectations of the doctor-patient relationship. Being able to take ownership of their health and feeling that their cultural beliefs were considered improves compliance and subsequently gives more optimal outcomes. Population-level policy interventions could also utilize salutogenic principles to identify previously overlooked domains that can be addressed. We identified several papers about salutogenesis in an ophthalmological context and acknowledged the relatively few studies on this topic at present and offer directions in which we can explore further in subsequent studies.

Purpose: The survey aims to explore the use of existing nomenclature and current clinical and multimodal imaging (MMI) approach in diagnosing white dot syndromes (WDS) among uveitis and retina specialists., Methods: The members of the International Uveitis Study Group (IUSG) task force MUV (Multimodal imaging in UVeitis) developed a survey. The questionnaire, created using Qualtrics, consisted of 22 questions. The responses were compared against regions, workplace setting, sub-specialty, and experience of the participants., Results: A total of 432 participants initiated the background section; 343 initiated the investigation section and 263/343 completed the survey (76.7%). The majority (43.7%) reported a specialty/practice focus mostly on uveitis, 32.2% on uveitis and retina, and 20.1% mostly on retina. Specifically, 55.7% were in practice > 10 years post-fellowship and 65.8% worked in academic settings. The term WDS was not universally used in clinical practice, with no significant differences by region, subspecialty, experience, workplace setting or number of WDS patients managed in the prior year ( p  > 0.01). Nearly 90% of participants reported using MMI to diagnose WDS. More than 70% advocated redefining the nomenclature and classification of WDS based on the primary anatomical location of disease using MMI without significant regional or professional differences ( p  > 0.01)., Conclusion: These results underscore the widespread adoption of MMI among uveitis and retina specialists in the characterization of entities traditionally grouped under the term WDS. Respondents strongly agree that MMI provides a precise distinction between these posterior uveitis, advocating for the overcoming of the clinical term WDS in favor of a patho-anatomic redefinition.

Introduction: Biologic agents targeting interleukin-6 (IL-6) have gained attention as a promising treatment option for non-infectious uveitis (NIU) cases resistant to first-line therapies. IL-6 plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of uveitic conditions and its complications (i.e. macular edema and neovscularization). This review aims to assess the therapeutic potential of IL-6 inhibitors in managing NIU, especially focused in clinical outcomes, such as visual acuity and macular edema., Methods: Narrative review of studies evaluating the efficacy of IL-6 inhibitors in patients with NIU. Parameters assessed include control of inflammation, corticosteroid-sparing effects, visual acuity improvement, and reduction of macular edema., Results: IL-6 inhibitors have demonstrated efficacy in controlling inflammation in 34% to 88% of cases and reducing corticosteroid dependence in approximately 55% of patients. Complete remission rates have been reported between 60% and 70%, with improvement in macular edema observed in 35.8% to 100% of cases. These results suggest that IL-6 inhibitors could be a therapeutic alternative for managing difficult cases of NIU., Conclusions: IL-6 inhibitors, including Tocilizumab and Sarilumab, have shown efficacy in controlling inflammation, improving visual outcomes, and reducing corticosteroid dependence in NIU. However, despite these promising results, further studies are needed to establish their long-term efficacy and safety. These therapies hold great potential for the future management of patients with uveitis.

Intermediate uveitis is defined as inflammation of the vitreous and pars planitis. Etiology can be infectious, associated with a systemic disease, neoplastic or idiopathic. Pars planitis is the term used for idiopathic intermediate uveitis that presents with snowballs and snowbanks. While relatively rare, intermediate uveitis is present globally and typically affects adult females. Awareness of the presentation and a dilated fundus examination in patients presenting with floaters is essential to the diagnosis. PCR testing has enhanced the ability to diagnose infectious and neoplastic conditions that masquerade as intermediate uveitis. A structured review of systems and focused imaging, and laboratory testing will assist with early diagnosis and initiation of treatment.

Anterior uveitis is the most common type of uveitis worldwide. The etiologies of anterior uveitis can be divided into infectious and non-infectious (idiopathic, autoimmune, autoinflammatory, trauma, and others). The viral pathogens most commonly associated with infectious anterior uveitis include Herpes Simplex Virus, Varicella-Zoster Virus, Cytomegalovirus, and Rubella Virus. Other emerging causes of viral anterior uveitis are West Nile Virus, Human-Immunodeficiency Virus, Epstein-Barr Virus, Parechovirus, Dengue Virus, Chikungunya Virus, and Human Herpesvirus type 6,7, and 8. Early recognition allows prompt management and mitigates its potential ocular complications. This article provides an updated literature review of the epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic tools, and treatment options for viral anterior uveitis.

Purpose: To assess the diagnostic performance of two chatbots, ChatGPT and Glass, in uveitis diagnosis compared to renowned uveitis specialists, and evaluate clinicians' perception about utilizing artificial intelligence (AI) in ophthalmology practice., Methods: Six cases were presented to uveitis experts, ChatGPT (version 3.5 and 4.0) and Glass 1.0, and diagnostic accuracy was analyzed. Additionally, a survey about the emotions, confidence in utilizing AI-based tools, and the likelihood of incorporating such tools in clinical practice was done., Results: Uveitis experts accurately diagnosed all cases (100%), while ChatGPT achieved a diagnostic success rate of 66% and Glass 1.0 achieved 33%. Most attendees felt excited or optimistic about utilizing AI in ophthalmology practice. Older age and high level of education were positively correlated with increased inclination to adopt AI-based tools., Conclusions: ChatGPT demonstrated promising diagnostic capabilities in uveitis cases and ophthalmologist showed enthusiasm for the integration of AI into clinical practice.

Introduction: Accurate diagnosis and timely management are vital for favorable uveitis outcomes. Artificial Intelligence (AI) holds promise in medical decision-making, particularly in ophthalmology. Yet, the diagnostic precision and management advice from AI-based uveitis chatbots lack assessment., Methods: We appraised diagnostic accuracy and management suggestions of an AI-based chatbot, ChatGPT, versus five uveitis-trained ophthalmologists, using 25 standard cases aligned with new Uveitis Nomenclature guidelines. Participants predicted likely diagnoses, two differentials, and next management steps. Comparative success rates were computed., Results: Ophthalmologists excelled (60-92%) in likely diagnosis, exceeding AI (60%). Considering fully and partially accurate diagnoses, ophthalmologists achieved 76-100% success; AI attained 72%. Despite an 8% AI improvement, its overall performance lagged. Ophthalmologists and AI agreed on diagnosis in 48% cases, with 91.6% exhibiting concurrence in management plans., Conclusions: The study underscores AI chatbots' potential in uveitis diagnosis and management, indicating their value in reducing diagnostic errors. Further research is essential to enhance AI chatbot precision in diagnosis and recommendations.

Purpose: As a potentially sight-threatening disease with ocular, systemic, and treatment-related complications, uveitis diminishes quality of life (QOL) and affects psychosocial well-being. This review summarizes the existing tools for evaluating psychosocial well-being and/or QOL in patients with uveitis, explores the biological and non-biological factors affecting psychosocial well-being and/or QOL, and proposes future directions for incorporating these tools into clinical practice., Methods: A systematic search of the MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane databases from inception to June 8, 2022 was conducted, screening for articles focused on psychosocial well-being and/or QOL in patients with uveitis. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses were performed., Results: In uveitis research, the most frequently studied patient-reported outcome measures were vision-related QOL (e.g. Visual Function Questionnaire [VFQ-25]) and health-related QOL (e.g. Short Form Survey [SF-36]), followed by mental health indicators including depression and anxiety. Instruments have also been developed specific to the pediatric population (e.g. Effects of Youngsters' Eyesight on Quality of Life [EYE-Q]). Generally, studies report worse psychosocial outcomes and QOL in patients with uveitis compared to the general population. Contributory factors include both clinical (e.g. visual impairment, ocular comorbidities) and patient-related (e.g. older age, female sex) factors., Conclusion: Given the heterogeneity of instruments used, it is worth considering standardization across large uveitis studies and trials. Beyond research, given the biopsychosocial effects on patients with uveitis, there are benefits to incorporating QOL and psychosocial assessments into clinical practice. Simplification of questionnaires into abridged forms, focusing on the most clinically relevant aspects of patient care, may be considered.

Purpose: To describe and compare clinical features, treatment approaches, and treatment outcomes of ocular tuberculosis (OTB) patients in the Netherlands, a low tuberculosis (TB)-endemic country, and Indonesia, a high TB-endemic country. We also aimed to identify predictors of treatment outcomes., Methods: A medical chart review of 339 OTB patients ( n  = 93 from the Netherlands and n  = 246 from Indonesia) was performed. The primary outcome was response to treatment, whether with or without anti-tubercular treatment, after six months of treatment initiation (good versus poor responders)., Results: Indonesian OTB patients displayed a higher prevalence of chest radiograph findings indicative of TB infection ( p  < 0.001) and concurrent active systemic TB ( p  = 0.011). Indonesian cohort exhibited a more acute and severe disease profile, including uveitis duration ≤ 3 months ( p  < 0.001), blindness ( p  < 0.001), anterior chamber (AC) cells ≥ 2+ ( p  < 0.001), and posterior synechiae ( p  < 0.001). Overall proportions of good responders to treatment were 67.6% in the Netherlands and 71.5% in Indonesia. Presence of AC cell ≥ 2+ (adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 2.12, 95% CI: 1.09-4.14), choroidal lesions other than serpiginous-like choroiditis (SLC) or tuberculoma (aOR: 4.47, 95% CI: 1.18-16.90), and retinal vasculitis (aOR: 2.32, 95% CI: 1.10-4.90) at baseline were predictors for poor response to treatment., Conclusions: Despite a more severe initial clinical presentation in the Indonesian cohort, the overall treatment outcomes of OTB was comparable in both cohorts. Three baseline clinical features were identified as predictors of treatment outcomes.

Infectious uveitis is a major global cause of vision impairment. Despite the eye's immune privilege, afforded by the blood-ocular barrier that restricts microbial entry, several pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites can still infiltrate and cause ocular infections and complications. Clinicians often encounter significant challenges in treating infectious uveitis due to limited or ineffective treatment options. Modern molecular techniques and imaging can aid in diagnosing and assessing intraocular infections. Various antimicrobial therapies exist, spanning topical and systemic treatments, but these are constrained by issues like drug concentration, penetration, effective duration, toxicity, and side effects. Treatment approaches also differ based on the infection's etiology. This review provides recent updates on antimicrobial therapies from a clinical perspective, covering topical, systemic, and regional treatments for infectious uveitis.

Objectives: To identify the characteristics, treatment, and visual outcomes of dengue uveitis at a tertiary eye care centre in Singapore., Methods: Retrospective case record review of all consecutive dengue uveitis patients (2004 to 2015) from the Ocular Autoimmune Systemic Inflammatory and Infectious Study (OASIS) database., Results: Fifty-four patients were identified from the OASIS database. The most common ocular symptom was blurring of vision (n = 41, 75.9%), followed by floaters (n = 9, 17.0%), scotoma (n = 5, 9.3%), and metamorphopsia (n = 3, 5.7%). Scotoma based on history, Amsler grid, and perimetry accounted for 27 (50%) patients. Majority presented with either a posterior uveitis or retinal vasculitis (n = 51, 94.4%). Treatments ranged from close observation for spontaneous improvement, to the use of high-dose corticosteroids., Conclusions: Dengue uveitis may present with a spectrum of disease manifestations including posterior uveitis, vasculitis, and macula edema. Scotoma is significant and may be found on history taking, Amsler charting, and perimetry.

Purpose: Clinical registries are increasingly important in research and clinical advancement. This review explores and compares current uveitis registries and recommends future directions on how uveitis registries can complement one another for synergistic effect and benefit., Methods: From a systematic search, 861 citations were screened for longitudinal, non-interventional, and multicenter uveitis-specific registries. Additional registries were identified via consultations with uveitis experts. Characteristics of all registries were analyzed and compared., Results: Four registries were identified: Treatment Exit Options for Non-infectious Uveitis, AutoInflammatory Disease Alliance International Registry, Ocular Autoimmune Systemic Inflammatory Infectious Study, and Fight Uveitis Blindness!. Despite certain differences, these registries have the overarching goal of collecting large quantities of real-world, high-quality patient data to improve the understanding of uveitis., Conclusion: The four uveitis registries share similar goals and collect clinical data from overlapping geographical regions. There is vast potential for collaboration, including data sharing to further augment datasets for analysis.

Introduction: Ocular toxoplasmosis is the leading cause of posterior uveitis worldwide, affecting individuals acrossdifferent age groups. The key to reducing vision loss includes prompt diagnosis and treatment. However, despite the prevalence of ocular toxoplasmosis, there has been little consensus regarding its pathophysiology,clinical features, diagnosis, and especially management., Methods: The data sources were literature reviews, including Pub Med and Medline databases. Search terms included toxoplasmosis, retinitis, vasculitis, vitritis, uveitis alone or in combination with, serum, aqueous, vitreous eye, ocular and review., Results: In this review paper, we have sought to provide an overview of the pathophysiology, epidemiology, and clinical features of the disease, both based on current literature and our own clinical experience. We have also discussed the use of serology, ocular fluid, and ophthalmic investigations that could further facilitate the diagnosis of ocular toxoplasmosis.Different management strategies have been reported worldwide, including newer approaches such as local therapy., Conclusion: A better understanding of critical aspects of ocular toxoplasmosis will hopefully lead to reduced morbidity, including blindness associated with this condition.

Dengue fever is a significant global public health concern with increasing incidence over the past two decades. The symptoms range from mild to severe, including fever, headache, rash, and joint pain. Ocular complications are prevalent among hospitalized patients, estimated to be between 10% and 40.3%, with varying incidences based on the serotype and severity of dengue. These complications can be hemorrhagic or inflammatory and typically occur after the onset of fever. Modern diagnostic tools such as Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) and Fundus Fluorescein Angiography (FFA) have enabled physicians to better understand the extent of ocular involvement and guide treatment. This article provides an updated overview of the various manifestations of dengue uveitis, including their diagnosis and treatment.

Endogenous endophthalmitis (EE) is an uncommon but potentially devastating ocular infection involving the inner layers of the eye. The global incidence of EE is on the rise. Common ocular signs and symptoms associated with EE include conjunctival injection, ocular pain, and reduced visual acuity. On clinical examination, a history of prior or coexisting systemic infections, symptoms (e.g., fever, malaise), and localizing features may be noted. Clinical diagnosis is often challenging, resulting in critical delays that contribute to a poor prognosis. Blood cultures and ocular fluid samples can aid in conforming causative pathogen(s), after which empirical antibiotic therapy, both systemic and intravitreal, should be instated. The use of steroids to suppress inflammation remains controversial. Surgical options include pars plana vitrectomy. Overall prognosis varies depending on host and pathogen factors, and early diagnosis and initiation of appropriate treatment are crucial.

Purpose: Following the pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, different vaccines were developed and approved by the main medical authorities under emergency protocol regulations. Although highly effective and well-tolerated in most patients, vaccines can uncommonly cause ocular adverse effects. In this article, the current evidence related to vaccine-associated uveitis is reviewed., Methods: A literature review of uveitis post various SARS-CoV-2 vaccinations., Results: Uveitis was reported following various forms of vaccinations but was more commonly seen following the Pfizer mRNA vaccine which is the most used vaccination worldwide. In western countries, the most common uveitis is mild anterior uveitis, developing within a week of first or subsequent vaccination with good resolution following appropriate topical steroid therapy in most cases. Posterior uveitis and particularly Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease was more prevalent in Asia. Uveitis may develop among known uveitis patients and those with other autoimmune diseases., Conclusion: Uveitis following Covid vaccinations is uncommon and has a good prognosis.

Objective: To evaluate alterations in the choroidal angioarchitecture of COVID-19 patients using optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) based surrogate markers., Methods: This prospective case-control study recruited 56 COVID-19 patients (111 eyes) and 61 healthy individuals (120 eyes). Choroidal thickness (CT) and Choroidal vascularity index (CVI) were derived from OCT images using a purpose-built automated software for choroidal image segmentation. A linear mixed model with age and gender as covariates was employed to compare CVI and CT between groups., Results: COVID-19 patients had significantly higher subfoveal (81.3um vs 86.8um, p = .02), temporal (78.8um vs 84.3um, p = .005), nasal (87.5um vs 95.1um, p = .001) and average CT (82.5um vs 88.7um, p = .001). COVID-19 patients had significantly lower subfoveal (64.0 vs 63.5, p = .02) and average CVI (63.5 vs 63.1, p = .02)., Conclusion: COVID-19 results in significantly thicker choroid with reduced relative vascularity. This may be attributable to increased vascular permeability secondary to inflammation, resulting in choroidal stromal edema.

Purpose: This review aims to provide an update on the clinical presentation, etiologies, complications, and treatment options in intermediate uveitis (IU)., Methods: Narrative literature review., Results: IU affects all age groups with no clear gender predominance and has varied etiologies including systemic illnesses and infectious diseases, or pars planitis. In some instances, IU may be the sole presentation of an underlying associated condition or disease. Management of IU and its complications include administration of corticosteroids, antimetabolites, T-cell inhibitors, and/or biologics, along with surgical interventions, with varying degrees of effectiveness across literature. In particular, increasing evidence of the safety and efficacy of immunomodulatory agents and biologics has seen greater adoption of these therapies in clinical practice., Conclusions: IU is an anatomical description of uveitis, involving intraocular inflammation of the vitreous, peripheral retinal vasculature, and pars plana. Various treatment options for intermediate uveitis are currently used in practice.

Purpose: To compare imaging modalities for the choroid of the eye, and evaluate various choroidal changes in uveitides entities., Methods: A comprehensive systematic literature review was conducted looking at current imaging modalities available to assess choroid architecture and commonly used parameters available to qualify and quantify choroidal changes, before looking at specific uveitides entities with choroidal involvement which have been broadly separated into non-infectious and infectious in etiology., Results: We describe the various modalities currently available to evaluate the choroid of the eye such as Ultrasound B Scan, ICGA, and OCT. Choroidal changes in various ocular and systemic diseases such as Behcet's Disease, Sarcoidosis, Syphillis, Tuberculosis, and many more have been reported and published., Conclusion: Multiple choroidal tomographic and angiotomographic findings have been demonstrated for evaluation in uveitis. These findings can manifest in multiple ocular and systemic diseases, and can be illustrated using the various imaging modalities at present. Future advancements in choroidal imaging would help to adapt these findings into parameters for clinical practice to properly evaluate these ocular and systemic diseases.

Aim: To analyze the structural features and therapeutic response in clinical and subclinical inflammatory choroidal neovascularization (i-CNV) detected inside subretinal hyperreflective material (SHRM) using swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) and SS-OCT angiography (SS-OCTA)., Methods: In this prospective interventional study, subjects with quiescent posterior uveitis presenting with SHRM on SS-OCT and CNV network on SS-OCTA were included. Subjects with intraretinal fluid/subretinal fluid (IRF/SRF) received intravitreal antivascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) injections, while those with no IRF/SRF either received treatment or observation for 6 months until they developed IRF/SRF or decrease in best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA)/metamorphopsia. Serial comparisons included SHRM width and height and intrinsic flow signal on OCTA., Results: 28 eyes of 22 subjects (12 males; mean age: 29.52 ± 12.56 years) were evaluated. Subjects with IRF/SRF at baseline (n = 6 eyes; termed as exudative iCNVs) receiving treatment showed significant improvement in BCVA ( p = .017), SHRM width/height and flow signal ( p < .05). Among eyes with no IRF/SRF (n = 22; termed as non-exudative iCNVs), 7 received treatment and showed significant improvement in SHRM parameters and BCVA ( p < .05). 4/15(26.67%) eyes that received no treatment developed IRF/SRF upon 6-month follow-up., Conclusion: SHRM may act as a useful biomarker to monitor activity and response to therapy in eyes with iCNV.

Purpose: Herpes zoster ophthalmicus (HZO) is traditionally considered as an unilateral disease. However, subclinical involvements in the contralateral eye structures are evidence, giving rise to a broader understanding of varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection., Methods: We enrolled 20 eyes of 10 patients with HZO and 12 eyes of healthy controls to investigate the bilateral features of HZO patients using a hand-held pupillometer and a Cochet-Bonnet esthesiometer., Results: Maximum pupil size before constriction (INT) and minimum diameter when pupil constricts at peak (END) were significantly smaller in patients affected eyes compared with those in controls (p < .05). Interestingly, INT and END were significantly reduced in contralateral eyes of 20 affected patients and also in comparison to control group (p < .001 and p = .034 respectively)., Conclusion: The contralateral eyes may have subclinical involvement in patients with HZO based on significantly abnormal pupillary light reflex (PLR). Pupillometer provides a primary and convenient method to investigate the anatomy and pathology of the PLR.

Purpose: This report aims to present a case of dengue-related myopic shift., Methods: This is a case report of a patient with dengue-related transient myopia, and demonstrates possible underlying pathophysiology., Results: A 38-year-old gentleman presented with bilateral blurring of vision with an unaided visual acuity (VA) of 6/120 bilaterally. He had a refractive error of -2.50 dioptres in the right eye, and -3.50 dioptres in the left eye. Ultrasound biomicroscopy (UBM) revealed suprachoroidal effusion with anterior displacement of the lens-iris complex bilaterally. Biometry performed showed lens thickness (LT) of 4.47 mm in the right eye, and 4.65 mm in the left eye. His unaided VA was noted to be 6/6 bilaterally 4 days later., Conclusions: Dengue-related myopic shift was likely secondary to two mechanisms. Firstly, suprachoroidal effusion resulted in an anterior displacement of the lens-iris complex. Secondly, there was an increase in the antero-posterior diameter of the lens, resulting in index myopia.

Purpose: To report nontubercular choroiditis, caused by Mycobacterium mageritense isolated using MALDI-TOF MS, following laparoscopic hysterectomy in an immunocompetent patient., Case Report: A 42-year-old female presented with gradual, painless diminution of vision in the right eye for six weeks. She had undergone laparoscopic hysterectomy two months back. BCVA was 2/60 OD. Clinical presentation and imaging all pointed to a diagnosis of serpiginous-like choroiditis. Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) had led to isolation of Mycobacterium mageritense . Patient was treated with systemic antibiotics. At 3 months follow up, BCVA improved to 6/60; fundus showed healed choroiditis and chorioretinal thinning., Conclusion: Atypical mycobacterial infections associated with laparoscopic surgeries can rarely lead to debilitating systemic bacteremia resulting in profound visual impairment. The importance of timely diagnosis using specific and sophisticated methods such as MALDI-TOF MS as well as maintaining aseptic precautions perioperatively during major surgeries cannot be overemphasized.

Purpose: To quantify retinochoroidal vascular parameters using swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCTA) in quiescent posterior and panuveitis., Methods: In this cross-sectional study, subjects with quiescent posterior and panuveitis underwent fundus imaging using SS-OCTA (DRI Triton®, Topcon, Japan). The metrics calculated were fractal dimension (FD), foveal avascular zone (FAZ) area, retinal vascularity index (capillary density index-CDI), and choroidal vascularity index (CVI)., Results: We included 38 eyes of 20 patients, 9 males aged 34.7 ± 10.5 years, 30 eyes of 30 age- and gender-matched healthy controls, 10 females aged 33.6 ± 8.5 years. Comparing patients with controls, we found a lower FD ( p < .001), larger FAZ ( p > .001), lower CDI in the superficial plexus ( p = .019), and lower CVI ( p < .001). We also found lower retinal and choroidal and thicknesses ( p < .001 and p = .025, respectively)., Conclusions: Patients with quiescent posterior and panuveitis have a significantly reduced retinochoroidal vascular density compared to healthy control subjects.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to evaluate the noninvasive diagnostic methods in managing the herpetic keratouveitis with retro-corneal endothelial plaques., Methods: 12 patients suspected to have unilateral herpetic keratouveitis with retro-corneal endothelial plaques were included. Slit lamp photos, AS-OCT, IVCM and corneal scraping culture were taken in all cases to help diagnosing and managing the disease. All patients received systemic and topical anti-viral treatment immediately and combined with topical steroids three days later., Results: Corneal scraping culture ruled out bacterial and fungal infection. AS-OCT showed that the boundaries between the corneal endothelial surface were clear in all patients. Corneal endothelial density and subbasal nerve plexus significantly decreased in all patients. Endothelial plaques reduced or disappeared in all patients with the treatment., Conclusions: Retro-corneal endothelial plaques and hypopyon are associated clinical manifestations of viral keratouveitis. AS-OCT and IVCM enhanced early detection and assessment during the follow-ups of the disease.

Ocular involvement is a rare manifestation of tuberculosis. Four key issues historically faced by clinicians when diagnosing and treating ocular tuberculosis - diagnostic uncertainty, naturally heterogeneous presentations, limitations of existing laboratory diagnostic tools, and non-uniform treatment guidelines - continue to test today's physicians. Unparalleled scientific and clinical developments over the past century have greatly expanded the knowledge surrounding this challenging ophthalmic condition. Experience with large volumes of cases at tuberculosis-endemic centres has led to recent growth in knowledge and physician experience, perhaps more so in developing countries. Looking forward, the role of diverse new technologies, including artificial intelligence and proteomics, will advance ocular tuberculosis research. Efforts have been made to address the lack of standardized nomenclature, diagnostic uncertainty, and unvalidated, geographically variable treatment guidelines.

Purpose: To explore the all-cause mortality in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) and Cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis., Methods: A retrospective cohort study of patients with CMV retinitis (CMVR) presented to a tertiary referral center in Singapore from January 1, 2004, through December 31, 2015., Results: A total of 144 patients were studied (87 survived, 11 lost to follow up, 46 died). Patients with bilateral CMVR and six-month follow up CD4 + T cell count < 50 cells/mm 3 have shorter time to mortality, compared to patients with CD4 + T cell count > 50 cells/mm 3 ( p < .001) and unilateral disease ( p = .043). Baseline CD4 + T cell count, size and zone of initial primary retinitis lesions, recurrences of retinitis, and timing of combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) are not significantly associated with mortality., Conclusion: Bilateral ocular involvement and lack of immune recovery in patients with AIDS and CMVR are associated with shorter survival time.

Objective : A prospective clinical study to assess the utility of CD4 + T cell lymphocyte profiling from peripheral blood in patients with ocular tuberculosis (TB). Methods : Thirty-six Asian patients with presumed diagnosis of ocular TB were recruited for T-lymphocyte profiling. MTB antigen specific CD4 assay was set up, and flow cytometric data were analyzed using FlowJo software. Results : There was no significant difference between treatment responders and non-responders for the proportion of CD4 + T cells specific for PPD or ESAT-6+ CFP-10, but treatment responders did have significantly higher frequency of CD38+ ( p = .0357) and CD38+ HLA-DR+ ( p = .0357) on the PPD-specific CD4 + T cells. Conclusion : This study is one of the first of its kind to look into MTB specific T cell activation marker profiling of peripheral blood in patients with ocular TB. Further studies need to be undertaken to assess the utility of CD4 + T cell phenotypes as a biomarker for ocular TB.

A 54-year-old Chinese male with no previous ocular history presented to the ophthalmology department for the bilateral acute painless blurring of vision after receiving the 1st dose of COVID-19 mRNA vaccine (PFIZER-BioNTech/COMIRNATY). Clinical examination and imaging tests were consistent with Vogt-Koyanagi-Hara disease. The patient responded well with a high dose of intravenous methylprednisolone followed by a tapering dose of oral prednisolone.

Purpose: The COVID-19 pandemic has galvanized the development of new vaccines at an unprecedented pace. Since the widespread implementation of vaccination campaigns, reports of ocular adverse effects after COVID-19 vaccinations have emerged. This review summarizes ocular adverse effects possibly associated with COVID-19 vaccination, and discusses their clinical characteristics and management., Methods: Narrative Literature Review., Results: Ocular adverse effects of COVID-19 vaccinations include facial nerve palsy, abducens nerve palsy, acute macular neuroretinopathy, central serous retinopathy, thrombosis, uveitis, multiple evanescent white dot syndrome, Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease reactivation, and new-onset Graves' Disease. Studies in current literature are primarily retrospective case series or isolated case reports - these are inherently weak in establishing association or causality. Nevertheless, the described presentations resemble the reported ocular manifestations of the COVID-19 disease itself. Hence, we hypothesize that the human body's immune response to COVID-19 vaccinations may be involved in the pathogenesis of the ocular adverse effects post-COVID-19 vaccination., Conclusion: Ophthalmologists and generalists should be aware of the possible, albeit rare, ocular adverse effects after COVID-19 vaccination.

Purpose : To analyze choroidal angioarchitecture in sympathetic ophthalmia (SO) using swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) images. Methods : Case-control study of six patients with SO. Qualitative changes and quantitative parameters, including choroidal thickness (CT) and choroidal vascularity index (CVI), were analyzed. Results : Qualitative findings in the acute phase of SO on SS-OCT included retinal serous detachment with hyperreflective septa, choroidal folds, alterations in angioarchitecture with loss of vascular lacunae, and Dalen-Fuchs nodules. There was significantly higher CT in SO (284.05 ± 24.12 µm) compared to healthy controls (229.57 ± 46.67 µm, p = 0.04) and also increased CVI in SO (62.06 ± 2.07% vs 56.79 ± 3.15%, p = 0.006). Conclusions : CVI was significantly increased in SO, representing a novel noninvasive biomarker of disease activity. SS-OCT provides a useful qualitative and quantitative parameter, which can be potentially explored in the diagnosis and monitoring of patients with SO.

Purpose: To provide recommendations for diagnosis of vitreoretinal lymphoma (VRL)., Methods: Literature was reviewed for reports supporting the diagnosis of VRL. A questionnaire (Delphi 1 round) was distributed to 28 participants. In the second round (Delphi 2), items of the questionnaire not reaching consensus (75% agreement) were discussed to finalize the recommendations., Results: Presenting symptoms include floaters and painless loss of vision, vitreous cells organized into sheets or clumps. Retinal lesions are usually multifocal creamy/white in the outer retina. Other findings include retinal lesions with "leopard-skin" appearance and retinal pigment epithelium atrophy. Severe vitreous infiltration without macular edema is the most likely presentation. Diagnostic vitrectomy should be performed. Systemic corticosteroid should be discontinued at least 2 weeks before surgery. An interleukin (IL)-10:IL-6 ratio > 1, positive mutation for the myeloid differentiation primary response 88 gene and monoclonality are indicators of VRL. Multi-modal imaging (optical coherence tomography, fundus autofluorescence) are recommended., Conclusions: A consensus meeting allowed the establishment of recommendations important for the diagnosis of VRL.

Purpose : To assess the choroidal vascularity index (CVI) in birdshot chorioretinopathy (BSCR) patients. Methods : The CVI was calculated as the ratio of luminar area to the total subfoveal choroidal area on enhanced-depth imaging optical coherence tomography. Intraocular inflammation was defined by the presence of macular edema and/or vitritis and/or vasculitis and/or papillitis. Results : Eighty BSCR patients and 22 healthy controls were included. Foveal choroidal thickness was lower in the BSCR compared with the control group ( p < 0.001). CVI was not different between the two groups. CVI was significantly higher in BSCR patients with inflammatory activity ( p = 0.004). Using a multivariate linear regression model, longer disease duration was associated with lower CVI ( p = 0.038), whereas the presence of papillitis was associated with a higher CVI ( p = 0.003). Conclusions : The CVI was not different between the BSCR and the control group. However, the CVI may be used as a new tool for monitoring inflammatory activity in BSCR.

Purpose: Ocular tuberculosis has protean clinical manifestations. Because of its varied clinical presentation, multimodal imaging is very important to characterize the disease activity, presence of inflammation, determining therapeutic response, and detection of complications., Methods: Narrative review., Results: In this review, various imaging modalities employed in the management of ocular tuberculosis including fluorescein angiography (FA), indocyanine green angiography (ICGA), optical coherence tomography (OCT), and optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) have been reviewed. Not only do these imaging tools complement each other in providing a comprehensive assessment of the pathology, they also help in gaining valuable insights regarding the evolution of the disease., Conclusions: Fundus imaging plays a vital role in the diagnosis and management of patients with posterior uveitis due to tuberculosis. Fundus imaging may have a useful role in defining clinical endpoints for ocular tuberculosis in the future.

Purpose: To report bilateral follicular conjunctivitis in two confirmed Coronavirus (COVID-19) patients with the presence of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in conjunctival swab specimens., Participants and Methods: Two unrelated patients with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection and bilateral acute conjunctivitis were examined. Conjunctival swabs were assessed for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and viral culture., Results: Both patients developed eye redness 3 days after the onset of COVID-19 symptoms. Slit lamp examination showed bilateral acute follicular conjunctivitis, which was resolved within 6 days. RT-PCR demonstrated the presence of viral RNA in conjunctival specimens from both eyes, which was unrelated to viral RNA from throat swabs., Conclusion: SARS-CoV-2 may cause ocular manifestations such as viral conjunctivitis. Conjunctival sampling may be useful for infected patients with conjunctivitis and fever. Precautionary measures are recommended when examining infected patients throughout the clinical course of the infection.

Purpose : To describe ocular surface disorders associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Methods : Narrative review. Results : Ocular surface neoplastic conditions, such as Kaposi's sarcoma, conjunctival lymphoma and ocular squamous cell carcinoma along with blepharitis, dry eye disease, and vernal keratoconjunctivitis, constitute ocular surface complications in HIV-infected individuals. Conclusion : This review will provide a summary of clinical presentations and treatment options for the most common HIV-related ocular surface diseases, indicating the need for a comprehensive ocular examination including ocular surface in all HIV patients 22.

Purpose : Overview of treatment options for the most common intraocular opportunistic infections in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), including ocular syphilis, ocular tuberculosis, toxoplasmic chorioretinitis, and viral retinitis. Method : Narrative Review. Results : Despite the huge advances in the development of combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) for the management of patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, opportunistic infections still represent a significant diagnostic dilemma and cause of ocular morbidity in patients with HIV. Conclusion : Although the treatment of intraocular infections in patients with AIDS may be challenging, prompt assessment of the clinical features and appropriate aggressive management of the underlying etiology are critical to avoid life and vision threatening.

Purpose : To describe drug-induced uveitis in immunocompromised patients diagnosed with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection Methods : Narrative Review Results : Systemic and intraocular medications administered for the treatment of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)-associated diseases in patients infected with HIV are a well-known cause of uveitis. Conclusions : Cidofovir and rifabutin, among other novel anti-retroviral therapies, are strongly associated with drug-induced uveitis. It is imperative to understand the pathogenesis, clinical findings, and management of HIV patients with uveitis induced by these agents.

Purpose: To describe the challenges faced by uveitis specialists when managing human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) -infected patients diagnosed with ocular opportunistic infections. Methods: Narrative Review Results: Management of opportunistic ocular infections in HIV-infected subjects still represents a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. Atypical and aggressive clinical features can often mislead the correct diagnosis, leading to a delay in therapy and thus, a poor clinical outcome. The reliability of standard serological tests may be affected by the immune system response, further contributing to the diagnostic challenge. Life-long monitoring and long-term antimicrobial maintenance are necessary to avoid recurrences and disease dissemination. Conclusions: A multidisciplinary approach is needed to achieve the best standard of care for HIV patients with ocular opportunistic infections.

Purpose: Tubercular intermediate uveitis (TIU) and panuveitis (TBP) are difficult to manage because of limitations in diagnostic tools and lack of evidence-based treatment guidelines. The Collaborative Ocular Tuberculosis Study (COTS) analyzed treatment regimens and therapeutic outcomes in patients with TIU and TBP. Methods: Multicentre retrospective analysis. Results A total of 138 TIU and 309 TBP patients were included. A total of 382 subjects received antitubercular therapy (ATT) (n = 382/447; 85.4%) and 382 received corticosteroids (n = 382/447; 85.4%). Treatment failure was observed in 78 individuals (n = 78/447; 17.4%), occurring less frequently in patients receiving ATT (n = 66/382; 17.2%) compared to those who did not (n = 12/65; 18.5%). The study did not show any statistically significant therapeutic effect of ATT in patients with TIU and TBP. Conclusion Taking into account the limitations of the retrospective, non-randomized study design, resultant reliance on reported data records, and unequal size of the samples, the current study cannot provide conclusive evidence on the therapeutic benefit of ATT in TIU and TBP.

Purpose : The Collaborative Ocular Tuberculosis Study (COTS) Group sought to address the diagnostic uncertainty through retrospective cohort analysis of treatment regimens and therapeutic outcomes for patients with tubercular Anterior Uveitis (TAU) across international centers. Methods : Multicentre retrospective analysis of patients diagnosed with TAU between January 2004 to December 2014 that had a minimum follow-up of 1 year. Results : One hundred and sixty-five patients were included. One hundred and seven subjects received antitubercular therapy (ATT) (n = 107/165; 64.9%) with all the patients receiving topical steroid therapy. Treatment failure was noted in 17 patients (n = 17/165; 10.3%), more frequently described in patients that received ATT (n = 13/107, 12.2%), than those that did not receive ATT (n = 4/58, 6.9%). Conclusion : In this retrospective study, addition of ATT did not have any statistically significant impact on outcome in patients with TAU.

Purpose: To examine disease profile of tubercular uveitis (TBU) in Paediatric population. Methods: Among 945 patients of the retrospective multinational study by the Collaborative Ocular Tuberculosis Study (COTS)-1, 29 Paediatric patients diagnosed with TBU were analyzed. Results: Mean age of disease presentation was 12.8 (range 4-18 years), with predominance of males (n = 14/20; 70.0%) and Asian ethnicity (n = 25/29; 86.2%). Posterior uveitis (n = 14/28; 50%) was the most frequent uveitis phenotype, with choroidal involvement occurring in 64.7% (n = 11/17). Incidence of optic disc edema and macular edema was higher in children (n = 8/18; 44.4% and n = 5/18; 27.8%, respectively) than in adults (n = 160/942; 16.9% and n = 135/942; 14.3%, respectively). Comparison of optic disc edema between subgroups showed a significant difference ( P =.006 ). All patients received oral corticosteroids, most of them with antitubercular therapy. Treatment failure developed in 4.8% (n = 1/21). Conclusions: Children have a more severe inflammatory response to the disease, and an intensive anti-inflammatory therapeutic regimen is required to achieve a positive treatment outcome.

Purpose : To standardize a nomenclature system for defining clinical phenotypes, and outcome measures for reporting clinical and research data in patients with ocular tuberculosis (OTB). Methods : Uveitis experts initially administered and further deliberated the survey in an open meeting to determine and propose the preferred nomenclature for terms related to the OTB, terms describing the clinical phenotypes and treatment and reporting outcomes. Results : The group of experts reached a consensus on terming uveitis attributable to tuberculosis (TB) as tubercular uveitis. The working group introduced a SUN-compatible nomenclature that also defines disease "remission" and "cure", both of which are relevant for reporting treatment outcomes. Conclusion : A consensus nomenclature system has been adopted by a large group of international uveitis experts for OTB. The working group recommends the use of standardized nomenclature to prevent ambiguity in communication and to achieve the goal of spreading awareness of this blinding uveitis entity.

Purpose : To report the clinical findings, anatomical features, and treatment outcomes in subjects with ocular tuberculosis (OTB) at 24 months in the Collaborative Ocular Tuberculosis Study (COTS)-1. Methods : Of the 945 subjects included in COTS-1, those who completed a 24-month follow-up after completion of treatment were included. The main outcome measure was a number of patients with treatment failure (TF). Results : 228 subjects (120 males; mean age of 42.82 ± 14.73 years) were included. Most common phenotype of uveitis was posterior ( n = 81; 35.53%), and panuveitis ( n = 76; 33.33%). Fifty-two patients (22.81%) had TF. On univariable analysis, odds of high TF was observed with bilaterality (OR: 3.46, p = .003), vitreous haze (OR: 2.14, p = .018), and use of immunosuppressive therapies (OR: 5.45, p = .003). However, only bilaterality was significant in the multiple regression model (OR: 2.84; p = .02). Conclusions : Majority of subjects (>75%) achieved cure in the COTS-1 at 24-month follow-up. The concept of "cure" may be a valuable clinical endpoint in trials for OTB.

Objective: Aim of the study was to examine extent, natural history, and clinical features associated with visual impairment (VI) in patients diagnosed with ocular tuberculosis (OTB) by the Collaborative Ocular Tuberculosis Study (COTS)-1. Methods: Multi-center retrospective cohort study. Main outcomes were VI. Results: A total of 302 patients were included in the study, including 175 patients whose data related to BCVA were available throughout the 2 years of follow up. Mean BCVA grossly improved at 12, 18, and 24 months of follow-up ( p < .001). Mean BCVA was worse at 12-18th month follow-up for patients treated with ATT versus patients who were not treated with ATT, but patients treated with ATT had a statistically significant improvement in BCVA at the 24-month endpoint. Conclusions: OTB is associated with significant visual morbidity, future well-designed prospective studies are warranted to establish the causal association between OTB and visual loss.

Purpose : To contribute a global description of the spectrum of choroidal involvement in tubercular uveitis (TBU). Methods : Retrospective cohort study of TBU patients with choroidal involvement from 25 centers between January 2004 and December 2014. Medical records of patients with a minimum follow-up of 1 year were reviewed. Results : 245 patients were included. The phenotypic variations included serpiginous-like choroiditis (SLC) (46%), tuberculoma (13.5%), multifocal choroiditis (MFC) (9.4%), ampiginous choroiditis (9%), among others. 219 patients were treated with anti-tubercular therapy (ATT) ( n  = 219/245, 89.38%), 229 patients with steroids ( n  = 229/245, 93.47%) and 28 patients with immunosuppressive agents ( n  = 28/245, 11.42%). Treatment failure was noted in 38 patients ( n  = 38/245, 15.5%). Patients with SLC and ampiginous choroiditis appeared to have superior outcomes on survival analysis ( p  = 0.06). Conclusion : This study provides a comprehensive description of choroidal involvement in TBU. Patients with SLC and ampiginous choroiditis may have better clinical outcomes.