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Using a prospective, randomized study design we demonstrate that midazolam sedation minimizes acidosis compared with physical restraint in captive juvenile estuarine crocodiles during handling or noninvasive procedures at preferred body temperature. A dose of midazolam (5.0 mg/kg) was administered intramuscularly into the forelimb of 20 male estuarine crocodiles weighing 2-3.5 kg. Their heart and respiratory rate and degree of sedation were monitored until recovery and then daily for 7 subsequent days. Blood samples were taken at 30, 60, 90, 180, and 360 min. We recorded lactate, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (CO2), hematocrit, glucose, and blood pH. A second group (1.9-2.6 kg) was physically restrained for 5 min and the same parameters recorded. Physically restrained animals demonstrated elevated heart rate, respiratory rate, glucose, lactate, and anion gap compared with the midazolam-treated group. Physically restrained animals had lower pH, bicarbonate, and partial pressure of CO2 compared with the midazolam-treated group. Behavior in the physically restrained group in the days following the study was disrupted, with reluctance to feed and bask, compared with midazolam-treated animals whose behavior was normal. We conclude that midazolam administered in the forelimb of captive estuarine crocodiles of 2-3.5 kg provides predictable onset and duration of sedation enabling physical examination, sample collection, and translocation of the animals with minimal disturbance to lactate, pH, and CO2. Behavior following recovery appears normal.

We describe the use of a combination of tiletamine and zolazepam (Zoletil®) for chemical restraint of South American coatis ( Nasua nasua ) under field conditions. We immobilized 53 coatis from a free-ranging population at Iguaçu National Park, Brazil, with Zoletil. Males and females (1.0-8.7 kg) of different age groups participated in the study. Four dosage (milligram per kilogram body weight) groups were created based on quartiles as follows: 1) 4.76-6.68 mg/kg (n=13), 2) 6.83-7.71 mg/kg (n=13), 3) 7.72-8.68 mg/kg (n=18), and 4) 8.98-11.57 mg/kg (n=9). Variables analyzed were sex, age, body weight, dosage, induction time, handling time (HT: time elapsed between the onset of immobilization and first signs of recovery), time from injection to first stand-up posture after anesthesia, heart and respiratory rates, and body temperature. Mean (±SD) induction time was 2.9 (±1.4) min and was positively correlated with age. In dosage groups 1-4, mean HTs were 40.3 (±24.0), 64.5 (±19.1), 54.8 (±15.0), and 60.3 (±12.0), respectively. Handling time had a positive linear relationship with age and body weight, but the relationship between HT and dosage was nonlinear. Group 1 had a shorter HT compared to the other groups combined. Time from injection to first stand-up was 105.0 (±33.5) min. Zoletil was quick acting and safe for immobilization of coatis in the wild.

We used a combination of Telazol (3.3 mg/kg) and xylazine hydrochloride (1.6 mg/kg to immobilize 144 wild pigs (Sus scrofa) with blow darts. This drug combination was safe and effective for rapidly immobilizing animals ranging in size from 34 to170 kg and avoided difficulties associated with hand injections. For 123 single injection immobilizations, mean (+/- SD) induction times and effective handling periods averaged 5 (+/- 2.5) and 52 (+/- 18) min, respectively, and animals generally recovered for release within 120 min of initial injections. Animals that required two injections to immobilize (n = 21) received lower initial doses of Telazol and xylazine hydrochloride than those immobilized with a single injection because of errors in estimating body sizes; we found that there was a threshold dose required to immobilize wild pigs from 2.8 to 3.3 mg/kg Telazol and 1.4 to 1.6 mg/kg xylazine. Although neither age or sex influenced immobilization parameters, animals in good condition required longer to recover than those in poor condition. However, animals immobilized with two injections recovered as rapidly as those immobilized with a single injection. Heart rates and body temperatures declined slightly during the immobilization period, but respiration rates and blood oxygen saturation levels remained stable. In general, single injection immobilizations were preferable because they minimized problems associated with injecting partially immobilized animals. because it was difficult to accurately estimate the sizes of large wild pigs (or = 90 kg), and because wild pigs that were partially immobilized were difficult to handle, we recommend increasing the drug doses to 4 mg/kg Telazol and 2 mg/kg xylazine hydrochloride when injecting relatively large animals to assure single injection immobilizations. Although recovery periods may be prolonged, higher doses of Telazol and xylazine should be safe based on data from domestic pigs.

A 1:1 combination by weight of tiletamine hydrochloride and zolazepam hydrochloride was administered to 30 adult Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) in doses varying from 100 to 300 mg. Full immobilization was achieved in 16 seals, moderate sedation in seven and light sedation in seven. Three animals died; two were fully immobilized and one was moderately sedated prior to death. The drug combination was considered satisfactory, although its usefulness was limited by the lack of chemical antagonists when complications were encountered in immobilized animals.

This study describes the use of allometric scaling in five giant anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) submitted for osteosynthesis, gastrostomy, or treatment of burns. Chemical restraint was performed by allometric scaling using the dog as a reference; acepromazine (0.06 mg/kg), diazepam (0.3 mg/kg), ketamine (8.8 mg/kg), and buprenorphine (5.9 microg/kg) were combined, and the animals were maintained under isoflurane anesthesia. Heart rate, respiratory rate, hemoglobin oxygen saturation, temperature, and anesthetic depth were measured. Postoperative treatment consisted of ketoprofen, buprenorphine, and ceftiofur. Anesthetic induction was obtained in 10-15 min, achieving muscle relaxation and absence of excitement. Physiologic parameters were stable during the procedures, and postoperative treatment was effective. Allometric scaling was effective for chemical restraint and postoperative treatment.

This is the fourth edition of Dr. Carpenter’s excellent desktop reference for the treatment and care of ‘‘exotic’’ animals. The species covered are only exotic in the sense that they were historically different than the traditional production and companion animals. Many of the species covered would be considered quite common today. Twenty-three veterinarians contributed to the formulary. The book is divided into 13 chapters plus 11 ‘‘selected’’ appendices. The chapters include: invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, the marsupial sugar gliders, hedgehogs, rodents, rabbits, ferrets, miniature pigs, primates, and wildlife. The appendices primarily address general information applicable to most of the preceding chapters. Examples include classification of selected antimicrobials used in exotic animal medicine; determining the basal metabolic rate of animals; allometric scaling of drugs used in animals; and common weight, liquid measure, and length conversions. The book is written primarily for zoo and clinical veterinarians, but it could be useful for wildlife veterinarians dealing with captive animals. The wildlife chapter is fairly brief, focusing on wildlife rehabilitation. Each chapter is subdivided into antimicrobial agents, antifungal agents, antiparasitic agents, chemical restraint/anesthetic agents, analgesic agents, and tables on hematologic and serum biochemical values. Some chapters include additional information on hormones, steroids, nutrition, or other topics of value. Each subcategory consists of three columns: chemical agent, dosage, and comments. The chemical agents are listed alphabetically often with the trade name in parentheses. There usually are several dosages for each agent reflecting different routes of administration, conditions, or species. Many dosages are linked to the source reference. Effective use of the formulary requires an initial differential diagnosis. One then uses the subcategory to find the agent specific for the treatment of the condition. The appendices provide information on antimicrobial efficacies against selected microbes and the treatment of urinary tract infections, skin infections, and other common conditions. Only the chapter on amphibians provided differential diagnoses by predominant signs, a feature that would have been useful for all chapters. The index is only four pages long, yet there are hundreds to thousands of agents, conditions, and species mentioned in the text. Comparable formularies have far more extensive indices. Perhaps all these terms would be overwhelming to index, but modern desktop publishing software greatly simplifies this task. Most users would start with the index if they know the condition. For example, pasteurellosis is neither listed individually, nor even as a condition under ‘‘Rabbits.’’ Nonetheless, there is no comparable formulary on the market for these species and the wealth of information easily justifies the modest price. Carpenter’s formulary is a must for veterinarians and others dealing with these species.

This book is essential for the library of wildlife professionals who work with chemical or physical restraint of African wildlife species. This second edition is significantly improved over the first edition. Kock and Burroughs have edited and produced a book that succinctly addresses the relevant physiology, pharmacology, and human safety issues related to chemical restraint. While much of this information is also found in other sources, there are key sections that make this book a truly valuable resource for wildlife veterinarians and biologists. The chapter on the principles of chemical and physical restraint authored by Atkinson, Kock, and Meltzer is rich in observations, comments, and recommendations that can only come from years of field experience. The excellent photographs and illustrations provide the reader a visual reference for the induction phases of immobilization and the discussion of common causes of failures and adverse effects is written and illustrated based on experience rather than primarily literature review. The discussion of helicopter and fixed wing aircraft addresses differences in equipment, operating parameters, and safety that provide the uninitiated an important foundation to the subject. For non-African professionals, the section on individual species is a treasure, including excellent photographs to help distinguish many important African species on which restraint is used. This section is authored by Burroughs, Hofmeyer, Morkel, Kock, and Meltzer—all of whom are very experienced with African wildlife medicine and biology. Each wildlife species (arranged alphabetically) has a species description, notes on behavior, habitat, reproduction, the most common drugs used, and most importantly, valuable notes on distinctive restraint techniques used with that species. The authors’ note that gemsbok must be approached carefully is underscored by the comment that ‘‘they are very aggressive and may attempt to horn you’’ and is based on field experience. This kind of valuable information is provided throughout this section. This edition has an expanded section on carnivores, again with valuable but little-known tidbits of information such as the fact that large felids cannot resist the Calvin Klein fragrance, Obsession for MenH, and that this fragrance can be used as a lure for traps. One of the strongest expansions of this edition is the section on equipment. It is complete and comprehensive and provides valuable guidelines for assembling a working field box. Regulations concerning drugs and laws related to wildlife capture are focused on African wildlife. One shortcoming is the limitation to the use of etorphine or thiafentanil for ungulates; few alternative drugs and doses are mentioned. The addition of alternative drugs and doses would be a valuable addition to future editions. This resource is targeted for African readers but will be valuable for all wildlife professionals working with African species.

Twenty-three (9 male, 14 female) wild horses (Equus caballus) in the Great Basin Desert were immobilized by ground techniques with succinylcholine chloride during 1,950 person-hr. Induction (means = 2.09 +/- 0.59 min) and recovery (means = 12.4 +/- 5.0 min) were rapid and most animals were returned in less than 10 min to original bands. Dosages ranged from 0.66-0.77 mg/kg body weight and neither abortions nor band changes in group membership resulted. However, a few concerted efforts up to 24 hr were needed to return some animals to original bands and three non-drug related mortalities occurred. The responses of bands to darted members and the overall influence of the operation on reproduction, movements, and social structure are presented.

Meperidine HCl was administered intramuscularly by hand-syringe to a number of individuals representing several species of cetaceans (n = 95) and pinnipeds (n = 36). Dosage administered was 0.11 mg/kg, 0.23 mg/kg or 0.45 mg/kg, with the majority of animals receiving the middle dosage. Meperidine HCl provided moderate restraint in cetaceans without obvious deleterious effects. Restraint was achieved rapidly, with maximum effect occurring 20 min after intramuscular injection and lasting for 2 to 3 hr. Analgesia appeared to last as long as 4 hr and was sometimes accompanied by a restoration of appetite in animals suffering from physical discomfort. Higher doses produced increased sedation and analgesia without noticeably depressing respiration. Meperidine HCl provided moderate restraint for phocids and walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) without apparent detriment. California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) showed little restraint, but demonstrated profound respiratory depression.

A rectal prolapse in a wild lioness (Panthera leo Linnaeus) was manually reduced with the aid of chemical restraint and anaesthesia employing phencyclidine hydrochloride, acetylpromazine and thiopentone sodium. The ethical justification for the procedure was based on aesthetic and economic values.