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This paper analyzes the technical assistance program for research and fishery development, implemented by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in Brazil, between 1955 and 1978. We argue what were the motivations of the developed countries, the FAO and Brazil to mobilize this knowledge and how the socio-institutional support for its achievement was built. Following the itinerary of experts and attending to the characteristics of the field of fishing biology, we show how the Brazilian field of research, policies and fishing activity were built simultaneously. For this purpose, we used reports from several experts from the FAO and Brazilian public bodies.

This paper examines how variations in the height and health of Mexicans during the second half of the twentieth century reflect the evolution of economic inequality, as its effects have repercussions on the health and nutritional conditions of the population. The average height of Mexican adults had a modest increase with respect to the possibilities of human plasticity. These anthropometric variations were the result of the incorporation of advances in science and technology leading to improved standards of living among the population. Body changes were impacted by dietary habits, urbanization, and government policies supporting food production and distribution.

This paper studies a shelter network for Jewish scientists displaced by nazism from the archive of Alexander Lipschütz, a physiologist who lived in Chile since 1926. From the context of the anti-Semitic persecution and the way in which it affected German science and their universities, we have analyzed letters sent to and from Lipschütz between 1935 and 1936, with special attention to people who contacted him to flee Germany and considered Latin America as a possibility to live. We suggest this was a network of personal agencies, charged with subjectivities and intimacy, which had to take into account local anti-Semitism and academic xenophobia.

This paper addresses the professionalization of dentistry in Colombia during the first half of the twentieth century. To fully comprehend such a process, we must consider the tensions between the practice of non-certified and certified dentistry. As an outcome of such tensions, dentists began to acquire professional autonomy. We analyze applications for license files to practice dentistry without a degree, some of which were of women. The findings show the informal transfer of knowledge outside formal apprenticeship and the unrestricted practice of dentistry by many non-professionals but "permitted" dentists who faced a centralized and powerful professional bureaucracy.

The clinical histories of women's asylums allow us to deepen the gap between the positivist illusion of psychiatry during the first half of the 20th century in Spain and the subjective experience of the psychiatric internment of doubly subaltern crazy women. Diagnostic classifications were key in this attempt at positivization. This paper aims to point out which subjectifying elements participated in the application of diagnoses such as schizophrenia, psychopathy, and oligophrenia in the women's wards of the Manicomio Provincial de Málaga, and to show how the hegemonic ideal of femininity established a permeable limit between sanity and madness of women, between assimilations and resistances.

Hermilio Valdizán published several papers on what was called psychiatric folklore, understood as the ways of understanding and treating mental illnesses by indigenous people, both from the colonial and pre-Hispanic past and from the author's present. In this article, we analyze Valdizán's texts on the psychiatric and psychological characteristics of indigenous Peruvians. From the perspective of this psychiatrist, contemporary indigenous people were archaeological remains of the ancient Inca empire, ruins in the process of degeneration. In a context marked by indigenism, in which it was sought to integrate the Indians, psychiatry played a conservative and racist role that reproduced evolutionary models of the nineteenth century.

The Chilean physician Hans Betzhold published the book Eugenesia (Eugenics) in 1939, which was a work that received multiple awards and ran to a second edition in 1942. Both editions and the participation of Betzhold at the Second Peruvian Conference on Eugenics in 1943 attest to the fact that he was an important actor in the field of Chilean eugenics. This paper analyzes his transition from the publication of Eugenesia, in which he proposes a National Eugenics Department combining existing projects and laws to make the eugenic ideal a reality until its intervention, in the year 1943, when his optimism yields to disillusion regarding the task of creating a "Chilean superman."

This paper studies the phase after the declaration of the eradication of smallpox in Mexico and covers the period from June 1952 (the date on which the health authorities officially proclaimed this event) to 1977 (the year in which the National Institute of Hygiene prepared the last batch of glycerinated anti-smallpox vaccine). It is revealed that during these years, the Ministry of Health and Assistance continued to invest resources in work aimed at combating smallpox to maintain the levels of protection against smallpox and to prevent the reintroduction of the disease at a time when it was still endemic in several countries worldwide; and states that the population continued to report suspected cases and attribute deaths to this disease.

The paper examines the oral history of Hansen's disease in two Colombian communities that were leper colonies until 1961. The oral history around the disease allows us to connect individuals' memories with collective memory. This history remains an oral one, and few academic studies have documented it. We use oral history as a qualitative research method in order to analyze how the patients and those who lived alongside them positioned themselves in terms of the disease and how it permeated their entire existence, re-signifying the concepts of health and disease, normality and abnormality. We examine how, over the course of their lives, they engaged in resistance strategies that allowed them to get closer to normality, in their own sociocultural terms.

The aim of this article is to verify the influence of tuberculosis on mass tourism architecture. To achieve this, the paper analyses the typological evolution of the hotel since the middle of the nineteenth century, when the first sanatoria appeared in the alpine resorts. A study that creates links between the progress in architecture and the medical therapy advances. The goal is to highlight the hybridisation process between both architectural typologies. Although this overlapping is developed until the Second World War, the influence of its mixture is still present in contemporary mass tourism architecture.

Since the early 1990s, a series of studies underscored the overwhelming presence of positive eugenics in modern Argentina. These works emphasized the marginal role which discourse on eugenics took on violent methods for selection. In recent years, this point of view has shifted, emphasizing the conceptual viscosity of eugenics as well as the presence of negative eugenic discourses. This paper discusses these historiographic trends, and also dwells on the narratives that those perspectives articulated in relation to the question of sterilization and regulation of marriage of those who had tuberculosis in Buenos Aires during the first half of the twentieth century. This example stresses the need to examine discourse as well as practices in understanding and making sense of the past.

This paper examines some of the main elements that shaped eugenic discourse and practices during the first decades of the Franco regime. It primarily addresses the ideological basis of racial hygiene stemming from Francoist medicine and psychiatry, examining its relationship with the concept of Spanishness (Hispanidad). It shows that Francoist eugenics had punitive and coercive aspects and outlines the role it played in the brutal repression unleashed against the regime's political enemies, constructing its anti-Spanish identity. The paper also explores how the Catholic Church accepted eugenics as long as it was not linked to neo-Malthusianism and did not propagate sterilization, contraception, and abortion. In this respect, the paper examines the Catholic Church's position on the premarital certificate and counseling.

Pharmaceutical activities during the Second Empire have been neglected by historians of science in recent decades, even though pharmacy was an important discipline in Mexico City. This is shown by analyzing 12 papers published in the Gaceta Médica de México, the journal of the Sociedad Médica de México. Examination of these papers helps us understand the interests, practices and pharmaceutical activities of some of this group's physicians and pharmacists, as well as detailing scientific endorsement of the therapeutic use of Mexican flora. This allows us to trace a historical continuity in the activities of pharmacists in the capital city throughout the nineteenth century. Abstract Pharmaceutical activities during the Second Empire have been neglected by historians of science in recent decades, even though pharmacy was an important discipline in Mexico City. This is shown by analyzing 12 papers published in the Gaceta Médica de México, the journal of the Sociedad Médica de México. Examination of these papers helps us understand the interests, practices and pharmaceutical activities of some of this group's physicians and pharmacists, as well as detailing scientific endorsement of the therapeutic use of Mexican flora. This allows us to trace a historical continuity in the activities of pharmacists in the capital city throughout the nineteenth century.

The influence of Kurt Goldstein on the thinking of Georges Canguilhem extended throughout his entire work. This paper seeks to examine this relationship in order to conduct a study of the norm as a nexus or connection between the concept and life. Consequently, this work will be a reflection on the approach to life as a regulatory activity and self-realization. For this, it will be necessary to redefine the concepts of health and disease, and make a crossover between the two. At the end of this trajectory, it will be found that these concepts can explain the identity between the concept and life, which leads to the unexpected conclusion that the cure is ultimately self-healing.

One of the main focuses of analysis of this paper concerns the missions of international health agency experts to Spain to report on the situation, the activities in the fight against physical disabilities in children and on the actions taken to cope with the problem. The Spain-23 Plan was the instrument used by WHO and other agencies to start the process of change in a country undergoing a period of transformation under the enduring Franco dictatorship. As key sources, the paper uses unpublished reports of WHO experts on the subject, which resulted from visits to the country between 1950 and 1975. The methodological approach consists of an analysis of discourses from primary sources within the historiographical framework.

Poliomyelitis was introduced in Cuba in the late nineteenth century by American residents in Isla de Pinos. The first epidemics occurred in 1906 and 1909 and increased in intensity between 1930 and 1958. The scope of the paper is to reconstruct the history of the disease and its epidemics in Cuba prior to 1961, the first National Polio Vaccination Campaign (1962) and its results, as well as analyze the ongoing annual vaccination campaigns through to certified elimination of the disease (1994). The logical historical method was used and archival documents and statistics from the Ministry of Health on morbidity and mortality through 2000 were reviewed. Gross morbidity and mortality rates were calculated and interviews with key figures were conducted.

This paper analyzes the process of construction of the Argentine public health system, highlighting the limitations that occurred in the proposed nationalization of health policy in the postwar period and the central role played by subnational jurisdictions, making the provision of services rendered on a provincial basis. More precisely, in this respect it is seen how the expansion of health services in some provinces shows us how, in the second quarter of the twentieth century, it was primarily the result of the action of local rather than national departments. In order to better elucidate this process, the trajectory of public healthcare facilities in the province of Córdoba between 1930 and 1955 was studied.

This paper examines the relationship between the development of commercial maritime fishing and the study of marine fauna in Argentina between the end of the nineteenth century and the first decades of the twentieth century. It analyzes ichthyological research, the commercialization of fresh maritime products and the opportunities that urban markets offered for the creation of collections. It also focuses on the beginnings of deep-sea fishing, which would make it possible to capture and study new species as well as gather information about the marine environment.

Classifying is a way of organizing information, which can be defined as an activity where different objects, concepts or beings are assigned to categories according to a given criterion. The criteria for classification of living organisms have changed over the course of time. In this paper, based on a historical survey, the different ways that have existed for classifying living organisms are presented. Some current discussions regarding how organisms are grouped today are also presented, as well as the premises upon which such classifications are made, such as the notion of common ancestry, hierarchy and divergence, the notions of natural category and natural classifications within the biological sciences.

Girolamo Fracastoro wrote two works on syphilis: his famous poem, in which he gave a name to the disease, and a prose treatise. From the comparison of these works, in this paper we have identified the combination of several approaches as main characteristic of his description. On the one hand Fracastoro followed the classical medical explanation that emphasized the corruption of the air in order to explain the origins of the disease. On the other hand, when referring to the forms of contagion, he stated clearly that the disease is contracted by direct contact with an infected person. It is possible then to talk of the "invention" of syphilis by Fracastoro since he combined the information empirically collected, with the renaissance medical traditional perspective.

The objective of this work is to analyze the daily life of 'tubercular children'" coming from the city of Buenos Aires. They were hospitalized in the Maritime Asylum located in the seaside city of Mar del Plata, 400 kilometers from the capital. In 1893, in the Charitable Society of the Federal Capital, the idea arose of founding a hospital and maritime asylum for children ill with osseous tuberculosis in general, weak and convalescing children and the treatment of patients with extra-pulmonary tuberculosis. This paper attempts to advance the understanding of two inter-related topics: on the one hand, the characteristics of the institutionalized meddling of the Charitable Society, and, on the other, the experience that these tubercular children had in this institution.

This paper analyzes the discussions in the field of legal medicine in Mexico about the prudence of regulations concerning intermarriage that were decreed in the civil codes for the Federal District of 1871 and 1884. It shows that the heated debate forced the authors of the regulations to struggle for the need for medical vigilance of marriages between relatives, as a preventive measure sustained in a nihilistic vision of the pathological inheritance. The paper concludes by proposing a philosophical analysis that abandons the old fields of the "external" and the "internal".

At the time of Marie Rennotte's 150th birthday celebrations, a new focus on her meaningful actions as a Belgian-Brazilian pioneer professional in Education and Science in São Paulo at the turn of the 19th to the 20th centuries begins to take place. The present paper is a preliminary chronological draft with bibliography and recommended documents that will allow researchers from different areas to develop deeper historic, biographical, medical and social studies demanded by Rennotte's extraordinary personal dimensions and the unusual scope of her actions in São Paulo society.

The paper explores how Hannah Arendt's oppositions public-private and intimate-social can be used as an analytical tool to better understand a very concrete, extreme situation: the state of emergency triggered when an epidemiological outbreak hits a city, totally altering its inhabitants lives. Studied observation of what specific individuals (be they imagined or real) feel and think during times of epidemic is an underutilized tool that may prove helpful in studying epidemics themselves. Focusing on Camus' "The pest" and events in the city of Oran, the article looks at how victims of the plague felt about their public or private lives and their intimate and social ties.