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Scientists have warned for several years that food systems have become major drivers of environmental degradation, malnutrition, and food insecurity. In this paper, we present arguments from specialists that suggest that in the transition to more sustainable food systems, biodiversity and food security can be mutually supportive rather than conflicting goals. We have divided the opinions of these scientists into two "Big Topics". First, they examine the synergies and challenges of the intersection of biodiversity and food security. In the second section, they explain how various forms of food biodiversity, such as mushrooms, terrestrial wild animals, aquatic animals, algae, and wild plants, can contribute to food security. Finally, we present three main pathways that, according to these experts, could guide the transition toward biodiversity and food security in food systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is an historical review of ethnobotanical notes about wild and cultivated edible plants collected through texts from the end of the 18th century (1796) to the first decades of the 20th century (1930) in the area of Albania under European Turkey, which included parts of today North Macedonia and Kosovo. Albania is an Eastern European country, which has been little studied from historical ethnobotany point of view. For this reason, this paper is focused on foreign authors' works containing data on the use of plants for economic, medicinal, food purposes, and discussing mythological, religious and magical explanations for them. The study is not intended to be an exhaustive review of all materials on this subject, but includes the texts known to us that contain ethnobotanical knowledge. Further scientific research can be carried out in other studies on historical ethnobotany not only by foreign authors but also by Albanians. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The definition of priority areas for conservation and integrated management actions are essential for the effective maintenance and recovery of natural populations, especially for species overexploited by humans. Amazonian chelonians are a food resource historically used by people, resulting in the decline of species populations and worsening the risk of local extinctions. In this paper, we establish priority areas and define integrated conservation actions for populations of three Amazonian chelonians most threatened by human consumption in Brazil (Podocnemis expansa, P. unifilis and P. sextuberculata). To do so, we used 15 prioritization criteria (ecological, logistical and socioeconomic) estimated with 30 years monitoring data in 15 areas by the Amazon Chelonian Program (in portugues Projeto Quelonios da Amazonia, PQA). Each criterion presented four levels of priority with scores increasing according to the relevance for conservation of chelonian populations. The sum of the scores obtained in each area of the PQA allowed a ranking and four categories of importance for conservation to be defined. We also analyzed the similarity of scores among areas of the PQA and among the prioritization criteria to evaluate the application of integrated conservation action strategies. The areas of PQA were classified as Extremely Important for Conservation (Rebio Trombetas River, Middle Xingu River, Middle Araguaia River, Upper Guaporé River), Very Highly Important for Conservation (Middle Purus River, Middle Juruá River, Crixás-Açu River Mouth, Sub-middle Tapajós River); Highly Important for Conservation (Sub-Middle Araguaia River, Amazonas River Mouth, Middle Mortes River); and Important for Conservation (Middle Guaporé River, Lower Branco River, Flechal River, Afuá River). The prioritization and similarity analyses can support the development of a national integrated plan of conservation actions to reduce the overexploitation of Amazon chelonian populations, according to the ecological, logistical and socioeconomic needs of each PQA area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent times, ethnobiology has revived interest in cognitive aspects of humans' communities. A concept commonly used in this area is cognitive salience. In this paper we assess the wild animal salience meaning for the rural people from an area of the mountain range of the Córdoba province (Argentina). We also analyzed the relationship of cultural and ecological factors over wild animal domain salience. The values of cognitive salience, perception and cultural value were obtained by means of free lists to 16 collaborators, while semistructured interviews were used to inquire about local ecological knowledge and ease of observation about wild animals. The interdependence between the five variables elaborated was analyzed through a Principal Components Regression. The results show a qualitative relationship between Cognitive Salience and Cultural Value and a significant correlation between Cognitive Salience and Local Ecological Knowledge. Ease of Observation did not correlate with Cognitive Salience, but show a significant relationship with the Perceived Abundance. The results suggest a complex network of factors that are modeling the cognitive salience and local perceptions over wild animals. In our findings, highlight the Cultural Value given to harmful animals which reflects an increasing pattern in the region, the conflict between rural people and wild animals. In turn a mutual influences and causal feedback loops between cognitive salience and an ecological factor, the Perceived abundance, is proposed. Investigations over cognition and about how people perceived nature can give us an idea of how they act in it, a compelling factor when it comes to cultural and biological conservation issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a case study to understand how people from a rural population that has been undergoing intense anthropogenic transformations in recent decades perceive these local landscape changes. We conducted a participatory workshop, during which we used the scoring exercise method to stimulate the participants to rank the plant species that they consider most important for utilitarian and commercial purposes, and we employed the historical chart method to they represent the perceived changes in the availability of agricultural, wood, and medicinal plant resources over the last five decades. In order to further explore the historical chart results, we employed the thematic oral history method with those residents considered by the local people as having a high degree of knowledge about the local forest. Our findings show that people attribute great importance to the species of edible plants in the region, although they perceive them as having a low commercial potential. Regarding the perceived changes in the landscape, people indicated that there were declining areas of forest in the region, and that in the past, agriculture was practiced more intensely. Additionally, people perceive a decline in the availability of plants for wood purposes, and an increase in the availability of plants for medicinal purposes. These results indicate that even small rural populations can undertake significant changes in their surrounding ecosystems over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is focused in medicinal plant species belonging to the Traditional Chinese Phytotherapy whose products are commercialized in the pluricultural context of the Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina. The Chinese immigrants segment, like other recent immigrants groups in the study area, introduce their own plant products into the local urban scenario. In this framework, not only enter the new products but also their knowledge and beliefs associated, that become part of the mosaic of the knowledge in the local pluricultural system. Thus, the urban botanical knowledge constitutes a complex that includes the knowledge linked to the origin traditions of the immigrants segments, and the nontraditional one: the knowledge taught and learned, and the transmitted by the media, including scientific knowledge. The plant products incorporated by Chinese immigrants to their own restricted commercial circuit (linked to their traditions) are invisible for the majority of the local inhabitants. However, some of these products enter the general commercial circuit (nontraditional) and become visible for all local population. This visualization of the plant products implies the transmission of its associated knowledge, a process enhanced by the mass media, mainly the Internet. The results are interpreted within this theoretical framework. Also, the main features of the Traditional Chinese Phytotherapy are summarized, due to its differences with our Western medicine. For the species considered the scientific names, botanical families, distribution, Chinese name and Latin denomination of the plant products, and the reference samples are indicated. For each species are included a list of its uses linked to traditions, and a revision work of the biological activity and effects evaluated (the validation context in terms of Western science). In the context of Urban Ethnobotany, the presence alone of invisible species is a significant issue because increases the local biocultural diversity (of useful plants, products, and its associated knowledge). Likewise, the species that become visible make evident the dynamics of changes in their visualization process, an adaptive phenomenon that allow the understanding of the local biocultural system complexity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evolution of cultural systems, or the rate of change in the frequency of traits, is determined by the routes of knowledge transmission, among other factors. According to mathematical models, vertical transmission is the more conservative route, and it promotes high variation among individuals of a population, acts as a barrier to the diffusion of innovations, and promotes slow cultural evolution. However, the history of transmission of the same cultural traits beyond "model-apprentice" pairs indicates that vertical transmission can produce different effects on a cultural system. In the present paper we formalize the hypothesis that vertical transmission has diffusive effects and results in a fast change cultural evolution. If the hypothesis proposed here is confirmed, the theoretical reformulation and relativization of empirical data collected in previous studies will be required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnoichthyology has been highlighting in several regions of the world, due to the collaboration of studies that seek to understand the traditional or local ecological knowledge about different uses and meanings of fish among different human groups. Therefore, we present a systematic review of the literature concerning the current situation of ethnoichthyological studies in Brazil. We examine the temporal and spatial citation trends in Brazil, as well as who are the research actors and the thematic areas covered in the articles. In all, 177 published articles related to the topic were found in Brazil. The number of published articles increased significantly in time, with most studies concentrated in the Northeast Region of the country (44.4%), especially in the state of Bahia (16.8%). The types of aquatic environments include both marine and freshwater, such as sea (46.3%) and rivers (70.2%). The articles mainly rely on the collaboration of artisanal fisherman (74.3%). The topic most frequently addressed in the studies was bio-ecological aspects of fish (33.8%). On the other hand, studies on morphological aspects (2.7%) represented the less frequently among the thematic areas. We concluded that ethnoichthyology is increasing significantly in Brazil. However, some issues needed to be better understand, especially the knowledge of the recreational fishermen, the morphological aspects of the fish species by local fishermen and there are few studies in South and Midwest in Brazil, which will indicate the future efforts to improve the species conservation and the resource management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The death of wild vertebrates run over by motor vehicles on highways is one of the main causes of the loss of wildlife diversity. The aim of the present study was to investigate the diversity of wild fauna in roadkill incidents on a stretch of highway in the semiarid region of Brazil. The survey was conducted between March 2020 and May 2021 through active searches using a motorcycle. Killed vertebrates were analyzed and photographed in situ. Wild fauna was studied based on ecological descriptors, speed of movement and average rate of roadkill incidents. We compared total observed richness to that expected using nonparametric estimators. A total of 464 road-killed vertebrates were represented by two species of amphibians, 17 reptiles, 17 birds and 10 mammals. Amphibians were the most affected, totaling 245 individuals. Colubridae was the family with the largest number of species affected. Boiruna sertaneja and Boa constrictor were the only medium-size to large snakes killed. Herpailurus yagouaroundi and Leopardus tigrinus are respectively categorized as "least concern" and "vulnerable" according to the IUCN. The species accumulation curves continued to rise, showing no sign of approaching to an asymptote. Chao 2 and Jack 2 were the main estimators for road-killed wild vertebrates considering total richness. The diversity reported here is considered to be underestimated and greater monthly sampling efforts are required. Conservation strategies are urgently needed for the protection of wild vertebrate fauna to mitigate the staggering loss of biodiversity caused by the construction and operation of roads and highways in Brazil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Hunting has an ambivalent relationship with conservation: it can deplete and threaten vulnerable wildlife but can also motivate protection and good stewardship. Here we advance the understanding of this relationship by examining the different forms of hunting in one community with a particular focus on the motivations and implications surrounding the use of dogs. We present a case study from Indonesian New Guinea. We use self-reported information concerning the hunting activities and success of thirty-three hunters who frequent the lowland costal forest of Tambrauw in West Papua Province. The hunters identified 301 successful kills in a total of 654 hours of hunting over a 7-month period. Five different prey species were reported. In declining order of kills there were the Timor deer (Cervus timorensis), Wild pig (Sus scrofa), Common spotted cuscus (Spilocuscus maculatus), Dusky pademelon (Thylogale brunii) and Grizzled tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus inustus). While hunting with guns was the least frequently used method it was the most effective while passive methods (traps and snares) was the least efficient in terms of time (49 hours with 50 kills), but also the most commonly employed (352 hours with 123 kills) Interestingly, active hunting without dogs or guns yielded more kills per hour than hunting with them (0.70 versus 0.38 kills per hour), especially for deer, but hunting with dogs is the only method that seems to favour pigs over deer. Hunting in the daytime was more effective for pigs and less effective for all other species regardless of method. Dogs are also valued for guarding hunters and their families (from animals, enemies and spirits). We find that dogs sometimes provoke conflicts and cause other problems. Hunting method impacts the quantity and composition of the hunt, but as we see for dog ownership and use also relates to other practices. More attention should be given to local hunting and the methods used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Nahua communities in the Central Highlands of La Montaña of Guerrero region have a ritualagricultural cycle closely related to seasonality, environmental processes, agriculture, and landscape. The most important celebrations in the region are those asking for a good rainy season, for the rain to end, and to thank for the harvest. Building upon the ethnoecological framework, this study explores ritual-agricultural practices, the water realities these practices make, and their implications in water conservation and communitarian management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban ecosystems differ from non-urban ones in the strong and rapid biocultural dynamics generated by the interactions between people from different cultures, at large spatial and temporal scales and very fast rates. This opinion piece explores the concept of urban ethnobiology as a critical field of research that investigates the complex and dynamic biocultural systems that exist in urban environments. We argue that interactions between humans and other life forms in urban ecosystems are influenced by a characteristic set of social, cultural, and political factors that are linked to urban environments, such as infrastructure development, population density, and governance structures. We emphasize the need for an interdisciplinary approach that brings together experts from different fields to study the inherent complexity of these systems. By examining the sociocultural dynamics that shape the way urban biodiversity is perceived, used, and managed, we can gain deeper insights into the different dimensions of socio-cultural biodiversity in urban areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The pandemic of COVID-19 caused a global epidemiological, economic and social crisis. In the conservation sciences, several studies have focused efforts on understanding the effects of declining human activities on biodiversity, understanding the pandemic as an anthropogenic "pause" of global scale. But the impact of the pandemic was not the same for everyone. Different impacts are consequences of political and ethical questions about who and what can pause or be paused, according to what authority and under what conditions. Therefore, the historical asymmetrical relations of power in the World System are crucial to understanding environmental impacts and thinking about solutions in the post-pandemic world. This article discusses why historical local-global inequalities should be an indispensable reference variable for examining the different experiences caused by the pandemic in biodiversity, aiming at advancing the discussion about the society-nature relationship that the pandemic has spurred. To do so, we use the World-System Theory, initially proposed by Wallerstein, whose analytical categories allow us to situate nature conservation within broader economic, historical, and contemporary contexts. We argue for the understanding of biodiversity conservation in the context of the historical-sociological and global-local relations of the World-System. Finally, we discuss that the COVID-19 pandemic should be understood as an emergent phenomenon of the society-nature dynamic of the world-system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We created a matrix model structured by stages (divided into 5 stages) to evaluate the population dynamics of Caiman latirostris and the population behavior at different management intensities through ranching and hunting of adult individuals. We generated 5000 matrices by sampling the mean and variance values of survivals (pi) and hatching for each stage. For each matrix, we obtained the growth rate and performed elasticity analyses. Modifying the mean matrix obtained from the previous analysis, we evaluated different scenarios of ranching, reintroduction, and hunting of adult females of the last two stages (E) raised here (class III animals, > 60 cm snout-vent length, divided into two: E4 and E5). We obtained a mean of 1.035 (range 0.88 - 1.12), and 11.9% of the simulations had < 1. The vital rate with the highest elasticity and variance was that of the adult females of the last stage. Natural populations can tolerate a maximum of 5% adult female hunting, and ranching can extract 55% of nests from the wild without reintroduction or 80% of nest harvest, returning to the wild at least 3% of hatched animals in the ranching programs. Our model showed that hunting and ranching with reintroduction are feasible strategies to be applied without threatening natural populations. Increasing reintroduction makes it possible to extract more adult individuals and maintain the species' populations at sustainable levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spurred on by the illegal billion-dollar revenue, the capture and trade of wild fauna remain the leading illegal activities in Brazil, and elsewhere. We present and discuss insights into the wild animals housed at the Wild Animal Triage Center in Southern Brazil. Recorded data from 2005 to 2021 were used. A total of 36,950 animals were sheltered in that period, and most of them were common passerines (24,182) such as the Saffron Finch, and Red-crested Cardinal, among many others confiscated after inspections or reports. Passerines have long been the top trafficked species in Brazil and abroad, where birdkeeping has strong cultural and economic values. The totals per class were 29,784 birds (80.6%), 2,584 (7.0%) insects, 2,237 (6.1%) reptiles, and 2,170 (5.9%) mammals. Since they were mostly surrendered by the population rather than seized, most mammals, insects, and reptiles were probably unwanted guests in human spaces, tendency that illustrates the human difficulty in coexisting with wildlife. A total of 3,085 animals exhibited some threat or risk of extinction, which, as a general rule, grants them conservation priority. However, regardless of class, most animals (31,142) in this study were rated as least concern on the red lists, a trend in wildlife trafficking linked to the category criteria of being widely distributed species with abundant populations, and often, in close contact with human neighbors. Maintaining an abundance of common and nonthreatened species can be justified by the greater extent of their ecosystem services, from a local to global scale. Our results further highlight the urgent need to change our ways of interacting with wildlife, outstandingly the irresponsible ownership of animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objectives of this research were to identify and analyze ethnoveterinary medicinal plants and their associated indigenous knowledge, including their preparation and application by traditional healers and the status of their conservation by Guji Semi-Pastoralist People of Suro Barguda District, West Guji Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. Forty-six ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species representing 43 genera and 29 families were identified in the district. Approximately 26.1% of the families were represented by more than one species. The highest number of species was recorded for Asteraceae (5 species), followed by Euphorbiaceae (4 species), and most ethnoveterinary medicines were prepared from herbs and shrubs rather than other growth forms. Chopping the remedial parts and homogenizing them with cold water was found to be the major mode of remedy preparation. All documented ethnoveterinary plant species were harvested from the wild, and approximately 4.4% of the ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in the study area were endemic to Ethiopia. This study indicated that the study area encompasses different species of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants that should be given conservation priority, and the local community depends largely on these plants for the treatment of different livestock ailments, although the healers had a very high intention to keep their traditional knowledge secret. The indigenous knowledge of pastoralists about plants and breeding different species of livestock, as well as their environmental management systems (traditional forest, soil, and water conservation systems), should be incorporated into the planning and implementation of developmental interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Identifying and understanding how resilience is generated in a local socioecological system is essential for the design of future conservation strategies. The Linca sheep represents one of the most important - but least known - biocultural legacies of the Mapuche people in Patagonia. These sheep, which arrived in the region along with the conquistadors more than three centuries ago, have been almost completely displaced by the Merino sheep breed. In this work we analyse the principal components that characterise the producers of Linca sheep. These components are the key for the conservation of this traditional practice and takes a substantial part of local zoological knowledge (LZK). Interviews with artisans (n = 51) who know, require or use Linca wool, either know the breeders, enabled us to contact and interview 13 families who preserve these sheep. Based on an interpretative study we identified 3 biocultural components and 11 analytical variables. Through this analysis of the archetypes, within this universe of producers, we recognized three profiles: Veteran, Tenacious, and Emotionally Attached. The families who have preserved this ancient practice were assigned to one of the three groups based on the shortest Euclidean distance and information obtained from the interviews. Among the main characteristics of these producers the important role played by women stands out, as they preserve and transmit knowledge of the textile language and maintain the diversity of the Linca sheep, transforming their family units into guardians of the biocultural inheritance of this local breed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Suriname's freshwater systems are home to a large diversity of (endemic) fish species, and communities of Suriname's interior strongly depend on this diversity for their nutrient intake. However, studies on traditional knowledge of the country's freshwater fish and fish-plant interactions are scarce. Here, we present our findings of a pilot study in the Aucan Maroon community of Diitabiki (Tapanahoni river). We report the species of freshwater fish caught for food, their corresponding Aucan names and plants eaten by fish and/or used for fishing by the local population. We held semi-structured interviews and performed participant observation with fishers and forest guides in August and September 2021. We recorded 14 fish species, of which 12 were identified to species level, and recorded 16 Aucan fish names, of which nine were previously undocumented. Furthermore, we reported 11 plant species that were used for fishing and one fish poison (Tephrosia sinapou (Buc'hoz) A.Chev.). Suriname's riverine ecosystems are threatened by gold mining activities that endanger the health of local communities, as well as the fish populations and riverine forests on which both people and fish depend. Local knowledge on fish, their feeding behavior and the flooded forests is essential for the conservation of this important Amazonian ecosystem, for the development of sustainable management plans and health education programs on mercury levels in consumption fish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnobiology is a discipline that deals with understanding the relationship between human beings and biota. The strong interdisciplinary component of ethnobiology allows it to interact with different fields of knowledge. The evolutionary approach in ethnobiology is not completely absent, however it lacks systematization, which has been recently proposed. From this proposal, the evolutionary ethnobiology emerged. This approach studies the relations between human groups and biota from theoretical scenarios of ecology and evolution. Here we present the evolutionary ethnobiology, its key concepts, the theoretical scenarios with which it dialogues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marketing strategies to promote behavioral change are increasingly used to reduce the unsustainable use of wild meat. One of the mayor keys for success of behavior change campaigns lies in the choice of the channel for communication and the messaging. In this research, we present a behavioral change campaign implemented in Yangambi, Democratic Republic of Congo framed around an integrated conservation and development objective: improve food security in rural communities, reduce the unsustainable use of wildlife for food and promote locally grown pork and chicken. The campaign was co-developed based on the research team's knowledge of the hunting system in the study area and the participation of key local stakeholders (village leaders, hunters and their families). It used participatory community theater, various printed materials, radio and face to face interactions. We evaluated the efficiency and clarity of messaging for channels used through semi-structured interviews with hunters, households and wildlife traders. We found that participatory community theater resulted in increased clarity and understanding among hunters and households. Moreover, community theater promoted word-of-mouth communication that reached an audience well beyond the location where the theater was held. Messages that were framed positively and used amusing channels of communication triggered positive receptiveness by our audience. Using local languages, avoiding written materials for illiterate audiences, and using repetitive means of communication may be among the strategies that could help increase the clarity of communication messages, particularly for sensitive topics such as this one. Our work calls for more lessons learnt from the ground about the most appropriate communication channels and messages, keeping in mind the social and cultural background of the audience, and ensuring that messages trigger emotions that lead to the desired changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Caribbean region, very little is known about wild meat use and trade. To contribute to this knowledge gap, we studied the wild meat trade chain on the coastal area of Guyana, which geographically and culturally connects the Caribbean and the Amazon Region. In Guyana, the wildmeat sector is legal and in the process of being regulated. Our study shows that the market chain on the coast of Guyana is a short and direct market chain where the harvester most often sells directly to the consumer or through one level of intermediary (market vendors, home-based traders, roadside traders, restaurants, food stalls or rum shops). In coastal Guyana, wild meat can be considered a luxury, rather than a necessity: the price is higher compared to other alternative sources of meat and demand rises for special events. The topmost sold species are Cuniculus paca, Mazama americana, Tapirus terrestris, Dicotyles tajacu, Tayassu pecari, and Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris. The volumes traded to the coast of Guyana are equivalent to 361 tons of wild meat sold per year. Considering the population size on the coast of Guyana, this amount is equivalent to 1,4 g/capita/day and 4% of the protein intake from animal origin. These values are below those observed in urban towns from Central Amazonia in Brazil where wild meat consumption per capita equals to 18 g/capita/day. From a one health perspective, further attention is required with regards to food safety aspects along this legal trade chain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reptile meats and fats are used for their medicinal properties and nutritional values perceived through the culture of native peoples, though often with no scientific basis. Providing scientific information about potential medicinal and nutritional use of reptile fats would be a strategy for the full use of wild animals, supporting the sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity. The objective of this study was to characterize and chemically compare the fat and oil of individuals of Argentine Black and white tegu (Salvator merianae) and Broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris) from sustainable use and conservation programs. In addition, we evaluated the microbiological characteristics and the antimicrobial activity of the oils obtained by different methods. We used two methodologies to obtain oils, one by fusion extraction and the other by drying-decantation (traditional hunter's method). We obtained the chemical and microbiological characterization of fat and oil of C. latirostris and S. merianae. All the oil samples presented less than 10 CFU/ml of all the microorganisms tested. C. latirostris and S. merianae oil showed nutritional quality parameters that indicate its potential use. Furthermore, S. merianae oil showed antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Candidas tropicalis. No inhibition occurs for the rest of the microorganisms analyzed. C. latirostris oil did not show antimicrobial activity, although the lipid profile does indicate some anti-inflammatory potential. This study demonstrates the potential application of the tested oils and confirms the pharmacological basis for the traditional therapeutic use of S. merianae oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human-wildlife interactions, poaching and illegal wildlife trade in particular, are among the major threats to biodiversity around the world, causing species and population extinctions, zoonotic diseases dissemination, and exotic species invasions, among others. Here we assessed the patterns of poaching and illegal wildlife trade in western Argentina. We reviewed official infringement and verification records for 5 years (2015 to 2019) in San Juan province. We assessed the taxa involved and their conservation status, including wildlife uses and poaching elements. We found 58 taxa involved in 697 records. Most of them were birds (72%), followed by mammals (26%) and reptiles (2%). However, mammals are proportionally the most poached taxon in relation to their richness in the region. We detected that the bird Saltator aurantiirostris was the most prevalent species, appearing in 63% of all records, while Diuca diuca, the second most seized species, appeared in 19% of the infringement proceedings. This study shows that illegal hunting and trafficking are frequent activities affecting many species in the province, and that mammals and birds are the most affected taxa. Mammals were mostly involved in poaching events for their meat and fur, for which individuals were killed. On the other hand, birds were mainly live-captured to be sold as pets. Actions are necessary to protect fauna and raise people's awareness in order to effectively control these illegal activities and support ecosystem health and integrity. To tackle these problems, it is fundamental to understand the impacts of poaching and trade, improve state control to prevent these activities, and employ non-formal education actions to change people's behavior towards conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indigenous people, who are often economically, socially, and culturally dependent on forests, represent important stakeholders in forest management. Due to high costs, indigenous communities partner with external institutions to harvest timber, often resulting in forest degradation within their territories, internal and external conflicts, and disinterest in starting new timber management projects. Using a standardized methodology to investigate the outcomes of previous community forestry projects presents an opportunity to better understand and potentially resolve these issues. Hence, we conducted research in the Sinchi Roca I native community in Peru. Our objectives were (1) to describe the process of timber harvest, (2) to analyze gender differences in local perceptions of timber management, and (3) to evaluate the outcomes of the timber activity, applying socioeconomic criteria and indicators. Data collection included in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and intra-household surveys. We found that locals partnered with a company for timber harvesting, which led to a sanction from the Peruvian government. Timber harvesting was therefore negatively perceived in the community, with 83.75% of survey respondents dissatisfied with the activity and 88.75% reporting internal and external conflicts due to the presence of the company. Moreover, women did not have a major role in timber harvesting, nor did they actively participate in planning meetings. Results suggest that improving future timber management projects in indigenous communities requires that projects be adapted to local realities and encourage local participation, including training for locals in governance, administration of documents, and negotiations with external stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Different perceptions of wildlife are usually involved in decision-making processes on the use of environmental commons and in human choices; therefore, knowing how people value nature can enhance our understanding about human-wildlife relationships. We propose to broaden the concept of cultural value by considering the trade-offs between positive and negative nature's contributions to people (NCP), including trade-offs influenced by near-past contexts. Field work was conducted with inhabitants of a rural community of the Dry Chaco of Argentina, aiming at knowing the importance of fauna in people 's lives. We conducted free listings and semi-structured interviews and calculated the cognitive salience index and five cultural value indexes (differing in the number and types of NCP categories considered). Local inhabitants were found to assess wild species by considering the satisfaction of material needs, immaterial aspects, and/or the damages that certain species may cause. The ethnospecies most widely and frequently used with material purposes in the near past and at present, and those considered the most harmful showed the highest salience values. The cultural value index that integrates both positive and negative assessments was positively correlated with cognitive salience; this relationship supports the results, showing that cognitive salience not only is conditioned by positive assessments but also captures multiple fauna assessments, including the negative ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, international exchange students and mobility researchers, including ethnobiologists, are an important neglected group within academia. We highlight their challenges within academia and society, and propose solutions towards more academic flexibility, enhanced mobility preparedness, and a better cultural immersion in host communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of the management practices that different Guarani settlements have carried out in the environment over time constitutes one of the objectives of ethnoecology and historical ecology as the way through which these communities obtain forest resources affects landscape settings. In this work, based on a local classification system of the ontogenic stages of the pindo palm tree Syagrus romanzoffiana (Cham.) Glassman (Arecaceae), we study the effects of traditional management practices on the unity of the pindoty landscape - plant communities with a high concentration of this species. We evaluated the degree to which two morphometric variables used in the measurements of woody tree species, diameter at chest height (DBH) and total height (H), explain the local classification. As a result, in the environment of four Guarani settlements (Ita Piru, Kurupayty, Pindo Poty, and Yvyra Pepe Poty), the production of edible larvae favors temporary changes in the pindoty landscape unit since it produces changes in pindo population's structure - (abundances by class size). In addition, we discuss some aspects of the pindoty units and their anthropogenic nature concluding that their evolution results from the Guarani cyclical cosmological conception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Anthropocene, approximately 70% of all terrestrial ecosystems are highly modified by human activities and more than a half of all primate's species in the world are endangered. Here we present results of a systematic review on published articles with an Ethnoprimatology approach, aiming to assess the nationwide pattern and quality of proximity/interaction between human-nonhuman primates in Brazil, a country vulnerable to high deforestation rates while having the highest primate biodiversity in the world. The first article was published 29 years ago and add up to only 36 published articles until present time. Most studies were conducted in Atlantic forest, but higher number and diversity of interactions was described for Amazon. Sapajus, being a generalist and semi-terrestrial primate, was the most cited genus and had the greatest diversity of interactions, including garbage foraging and crop-raiding. Alouatta, the second most cite one, had more symbolic/mystic relationships. Some specialized or forest-specific primates are scarcely mentioned. Studies carried out in both rural and urban environment are almost equal in number but showed differences in types of interactions they describe: garbage foraging, crop-raiding by primates and food offering by humans happening in more urbanized areas and symbolic/mystic relationships and beliefs around nonhuman primates described in rural/indigenous settlements. We urge future studies to describe interactions and proximity carefully specifying the context where they occur. It is relevant to maintain the growing curve of Ethnoprimatological studies in Brazil as a way to aggregate information about different populations of species and help to base conservation strategies of co-existence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnobiological studies regarding the environmental perception of children are still infrequent, creating a gap in the understanding of factors that influence the process of developing perception in this phase of life. Therefore, this study sought to verify the influence of some factors, such as contact with natural environments, gender, and age in elementary school students, between 11 and 15 years of age, about remnants of the Atlantic Forest, present and future. We observed that the elements represented by children did not differ in terms of contact with natural environments, but those who live in rural areas, represented more elements related to usefulness. Additionally, the children in this study did not show significant differences in environmental representations between genders, and an increase in age indicated the loss of ecological knowledge about the natural components of a forest environment, giving way to a more utilitarian and degraded view of the environment. In general, we can state that children have precise perceptions about forest environments, and a negative perspective regarding the future of forests. Furthermore, certain factors may come to have a strong influence on their perception, especially with increasing age and strengthening of culturally established social roles for different genders, which will strongly influence decision-making in favor of forests in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The socio-environmental crisis that we are currently experiencing requires integrative research approaches and actions. Ethnobiology has important potential in this regard, both for its interdisciplinary nature and for recording the relationship between humans and the environment at different times and places. In this way, this opinion essay aims to discuss what we can learn from ancestral societies and Indigenous peoples for the establishment of a more equitable and sustainable world, considering the intersection between gender and ethnic groups. We will begin by examining archaeological data of societies in Old Europe and how domineering and patriarchal societies have been established. We will discuss a few findings about pre-Columbian peoples in America that reinforces the existence of more equitable societies. We add discussions related to gender, in the context of Indigenous peoples, and reflect on the importance of the feminine and of the complementarity in social relationships. Finally, we discuss the role of ethnobiological research in this context and the ways of collaborating to support values that favor the establishment of equitable societies, which are fundamental to address the challenges of this era of change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ray species have been globally threatened due to high fishing pressure and habitat loss. In southern Brazil fisheries, despite many ray species are protected by law and usually non-targeted species, they are captured along with commercially important species. However, as in all of Brazil, there is evidence that rays are consumed, that is, there is a demand for meat from these animals, which intensifies the risk of extinction. Marine ethnobiology is an alternative approach to better understand these organisms, considering the traditional empirical knowledge of fishers and local communities. Our objective is to evaluate the knowledge of local residents, fishers, and tourists about the occurrence, distribution, reproduction, and feeding of ray species and also ray consumption among them. We hypothesized that fishers and locals have a deeper ecological knowledge about rays than tourists, and fishers should know more than residents. Individual interviews were conducted for three consecutive days at Armação beach, Florianópolis, Brazil. We asked people about ray biology and ecology based on questionnaires. Each respondent was categorized into three groups: fishers, locals, and tourists; and ranked according to an index of ecological knowledge of rays. The fishers had greater knowledge about rays, followed by residents and tourists. Additionally, fishers and locals consume rays, even the trade is prohibited locally, evidencing the need for legal enforcement. The fishers' knowledge may be essential for management of fish stocks, contributing to sustainable fishing and species conservation. In contrast, the tourists' lack of knowledge evidences the need to raise awareness of these animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study recorded inhabitants' traditional knowledge and uses of bromeliads and the phorophytes present in their ecosystems in two localities of Oaxaca. We also evaluated the effect of harvest practices on the abundance and distribution of the populations of these epiphytes on different phorophytes, considering the existence, or not, of a Forest Management Program. Structured interviews were conducted with 60 adults to identify the species of bromeliads of greater cultural importance (BGCI). We identified recurrent harvest sites (RHS) and occasional harvest sites (OHS) in order to estimate the abundance and phorophyte preference of BGCI. Traditional names and uses of epiphytes and phorophytes are described; it was identified that Tillandsia deppeana, T. lucida and Catopsis occulta had the highest BGCI in both localities. Their populations showed greater abundance values in OHS in both localities compared with RHS (x2gl6 = 296.99, p < 0.05). T. deppeana and T. lucida were shown to prefer Quercus elliptica, while distribution of C. occulta showed a preference for Q. rugosa and Pinus oocarpa; however, phorophyte preference patterns of bromeliads may be influenced by the intensity of forest management. Decrease in abundance as the size category increased was recorded in three species, as well as the adult harvest. Finally, the inhabitants of both communities demonstrate similarities in their traditional knowledge, the intensity of harvest may be a factor influencing their abundance and preference of phorophytes, but also forest management programs determine the availability of bromeliads populations, due to the phorophytes specificity that some bromeliads exhibited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animals play a significant role in many cultures around the world. The southern river otter Lontra provocax (known locally as the "huillín") is endemic to southern Argentina and Chile, and is currently in danger of extinction. Mapuche communities have always lived closely alongside their animal resources, generating unique bonds with them. The ob jective of this work is to obtain an overview of the importance given to this species in the literature of the region with regard to the nature-culture connection. A systematic bibliographical review was carried out using reference libraries and web browsers. From all the sources analysed, 110 were selected which held biocultural information. The main approach used was ecological; however, the ethnohistorical texts provided the richest information on the bond between this otter and humans. The Mapuche name "huillín" appears in all the publications analysed, showing its continuity over time. Of all the zootoponyms found, 87.5% were Chilean and 12.5% were Argentine. The Argentine case is found in Nahuel Huapi lake, and is worthy of note as its name could involve the huillín. The results of this work increase our knowledge of the biocultural heritage of our region, and enable us to reflect on the associated historical and political processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sharks, due to some of their characteristics such as prominent teeth and size, cause fear in many people. This feeling can be evidenced due to encounters with these animals or sustained by media information. Currently, negative information on these animals, present in movies and the news, for example, has contributed to a worldwide feeling of "fear" or "anger" towards sharks in the general public. On the other hand, efforts to better understand these animals have increased. In addition to films and documentaries, many scientific and environmental education groups have attempted to improve or alleviate, public perception concerning this significant fear and promote shark conservation. In this context, we analyzed the perceptions of 354 people living in Rio de Janeiro, a coastal city in southeastern Brazil, by applying a structured online questionnaire about sharks. The findings reported herein indicate direct media influence on respondent perceptions, according to the "good" or "bad" image that media vehicles pass on concerning these animals, and that, despite an established fear of sharks, public support for their conservation is maintained. The factor analysis indicated a relationship between older people and more fear, and less fear among people aged 20-40 years. We believe that the lesser fear in the latter is related to the influence of the current media in this age group, such as documentaries and social networks, while older respondents lived in a period with less environmental information and became more susceptible to shark negative films and media, in which the fear persists today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Management practices are very sensitive to socio-environmental change and the influence of market society. This case study was carried out in the Cuyin Manzano rural community, situated in a protected area within the North Patagonian UNESCO biosphere reserve. We investigate the differential practices applied by the community with regard to management of native and introduced species with edible fruits using semi-structured and free interviews in 11 homes (80%). A Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) was also performed to validate the field results. The data was analyzed quali-quantitatively, in the latter case with Generalized Linear Models. A total richness of 27 species was found, of which 11 were native and 17 introduced. Native plants were mainly managed by gathering and tolerance, while exotic species were not only harvested, but also protected, sown and transplanted, and plants inherited from forebears were cared for. Management intensity varied according to origin, being greater for the introduced species. In addition, the species of greater cultural importance were also those which experienced a higher number of management practices, with possible processes of incipient domestication being particularly notable for two native plants. Exotic plants have a higher probability of being managed, and with greater intensity, than native ones, even though the latter have had a much longer history of use. Our results show patterns of diversification of edible fruit species through different management practices. For inhabitants, these practices represent significant situations of contact with nature, which enable traditions based on local knowledge to be maintained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historically, Brazilian fisheries management has not considered the knowledge of fish taxonomy from within fishing communities. This study points out processes of recognition, classification and nomenclature of sharks achieved by fishermen from South Bahia, Brazil. Data were obtained through semistructured interviews visually stimulated by exhibiting images of 30 species of elasmobranch fishes. Regionally, elasmobranch species are inserted into the folk taxon called "leather fishes" and in a category known as "cação" (shark) family. In addition to hierarchical classification, the fishermen organize shark species by adopting an ethnodimorphic and sequential model based on ethnoontogeny. Ethnodiagnostic characteristics are mainly related to the morphology, ecology and even physiology of a species. A total of 144 epithets is recorded, with a mean value of 4.8 ethnospecies for each scientific correspondent. Richness of vernacular names impedes species-specific information gathering regarding shark landings if fisher knowledge is not considered and applied in the improvement of fisheries data. Thus, this study encourages the employment of fishermen as parataxonomists in order to assist in the identification of sharks to specific levels. This study further emphasizes the potential of using ethnotaxonomic knowledge of fishing communities in initiatives related to participative management of shark fisheries in developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the last decade, there has been a change in the way protected areas are managed across the world, as their management gradually ceases to be the sole responsibility of the government and is being shared with civil society. This study evaluates the management effectiveness, according to the managers and management boards of 20 marine protected areas (MPAs) on the coast of Brazil, using the Rapid Assessment and Prioritization of Protected Area Management (RAPPAM) methodology. There were differences in perspectives of the managers and management boards; 8 MPAs showed a significant difference in management effectiveness values, and 11 MPAs showed a change in management effectiveness category. In addition, there was a positive correlation between the year the management board was established, and the effectiveness value provided by the council, as well as a significant difference between the effectiveness values of the MPAs under federal and state responsibility. In view of these differences, it is suggested that evaluations of management effectiveness should be carried out not only with managers, but also with management boards to reduce possible incongruities caused by the responses of only one person. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the reasons for the consumption of certain plant resources instead of others has important implications for biological conservation. This study aimed to answer the following question: What are the factors that determine the consumption and trade of certain wild fruit species among extractivists from two rural communities in northeastern Brazil? This study developed a participatory approach to identify the fruit species known and/or used by extractivists. The selected species were presented to the extractivists using semistructured interviews. A Likert scale (from 1 to 5) was used by interviewees to assign scores to 17 wild fruits in terms of local consumption, commercial potential, taste, nutritional potential, absence of adverse effects, postharvest durability, additional uses, temporal availability (fruit), spatial availability (fruit), spatial availability (plant), ease of collection, and ease of cultivation. Multiple regression analyses were performed to show the variables that best explained (1) the number of users, (2) the consumption intensity among users, (3) the number of traders, and (4) the commercial potential. The results showed that the spatial availability of the individual was the most outstanding variable to explain both the number of users and traders. However, for extractivists that trespass the availability barrier, taste is the most important driver of the consumption intensity and the commercial potential of plants. In contexts in which edible wild plants do not form the base of the local diet, taste may be more relevant in relation to other variables such nutritional potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The appreciation and taste towards mushrooms are influenced by sociocultural factors and ecological variables. This study evaluated the mycophilic degree among the Wixaritari and mestizo communities in a municipality in the north of Jalisco, settled in different types of vegetation, to determine if ecological and sociocultural factors influence the attitude towards the mushrooms. The MycophiliaMycophobia Index was evaluated in 10 communities in which structured interviews were conducted with a representative number of people. Responses to 18 indicators were analyzed by statistical tests. In general, the population resulted mycophilic. There were significant differences between the Wixaritari and mestizo attitudes in 10 of the 18 indicators. The model that best explained the mycophilic attitudes was communitycultural group in which the vegetation type was involved. Nevertheless, the cultural group alone affected the perception towards some issues, as the indicators include here have shown. One Wixarika community in pineoak forest was extremely mycophilic, in contrast to a mestizo community in oak forest that was indifferent to the mushrooms; these attitudes were the result of historical events that have modified the lifestyle of people. The differences in the evaluated indicators were due to the cosmovision of each cultural group. Changes in lifestyle and diet have caused a lack of interest and an apathetic attitude towards wild mushrooms in a community, but the farthest communities showed a greater appreciation towards mushrooms, especially since these and the rest of the wild resources are used to meet their basic needs. These attitudes could have implications for biological conservation because of the appreciation of a strong dependence on the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research performed in recent years indicates that efforts are still needed to understand the advances in the Caatinga, an important dry seasonal forest, and identify its potential for bioprospecting. These efforts are also important for pinpointing the challenges that should be addressed in future research focused on identifying new candidates for pharmacological studies in this complex region. Thus, in this review, we present the main advances of studies on plants and medicinal animals in the Caatinga region and their implications for ethnopharmacology, and we then discuss future challenges to promote the search for candidates with pharmacological potential. Based on an exploration of the available literature, we performed a critical reading of the available evidence to provide a good scenario on the studies in the region. We find that despite the large number of studies available, it is necessary to organize efforts to fill gaps in different areas of knowledge and optimize the search for new natural products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recognizing shifts in baseline conditions is necessary for understanding longterm changes in populations as a prelude to implementing presentday management actions and setting future restoration goals for anthropogenicallyaltered marine ecosystems. Examining historical information contained within anecdotal accounts from nontraditional sources has previously proven useful in this regard. Herein, I scrutinize eyewitness accounts and accompanying illustrations published in nineteenthcentury natural history journals which together comprise the most detailed description of sighting a purported sea serpent in the British Isles. I then reinterpret this anecdote (as well as complementary evidence offered by cryptozooloogists in its support obtained from other published journal articles of similarly described unidentified marine objects), suggesting it to provide one of the earliest reports of the nonlethal entanglement of an animal--in this case what I believe to have been a basking shark--in European waters. The present work suggests that the entanglement of sharks in fishing gear or hunting equipment has a much longer environmental history than is commonly believed, and provides another example of how ethnozoological studies can contribute toward recognizing past fishingrelated pressures and baseline shifts in affected populations. Sharks, it seems, have been subjected to the impacts of not just direct fishery exploitation but also through becoming bycatch, long before the advent and widespread use of plastic in the middle of the twentieth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reptiles are one of the most frequently encountered animal species in the trade for traditional medicine. The use of reptiles for medicinal purposes has been documented throughout the world, impacting dozens of species. Despite the broad occurrence of reptiles in medicinal trade, there is a general lack of information concerning the scale or impact of this trade and the species involved. Here we report the sale of Common Sun Skinks Eutropis multifasciata on the island of Java in Indonesia. We surveyed 13 wildlife markets and three reptile pet stores in eight cities across Java, documenting 110 Common Sun Skinks in trade in six markets in five cities. This skink is sold for traditional medicinal purposes with several vendors stating its use to treat skin problems like "itchiness". This particular use has not been well documented in Indonesia. Further, the Common Sun Skinks were primarily sold by vendors selling Tokay Geckos for a similar purpose. This is of potential conservation concern as Tokay Geckos are harvested en masse for medicinal purposes which has resulted in significant population declines, and this could lead to potential overexploitation of the Common Sun Skink in response to this decline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Firewood extraction and consumption are practices that require specific knowledge as well as detailed analysis of the cultural context in which they take place. The appropriation, use and selection of wood fuel resources were determined through open and semistructured interviews, guided walks, participant observation and recall. Currently, the rural inhabitants of the Sierra de Ancasti, Catamarca (Dry Chaco's forest) know about, manage, use, and appropriate firewood resources to meet their needs related to heating and preparing food in their homes. We identified 52 species (corresponding to 44 genera, 23 families) associated with the domestic use of fire. Among these, 42 species (81%) are currently used for food preparation, 23 species (44%) in heating and 16 species (31%) in fire ignition and production. Based on an analysis of frequency of mention and the Cognitive Salience Index, the most important and preferred species among the inhabitants are Condalia spp., Lithraea molleoides and Vachellia caven. Factors that determine the selection of the species include firewood quality, accessibility and distance. Additional factors such as the high richness of firewood species used and known in the region, the flexibility of the inhabitants in their choice of species, the exclusive use of firewood for domestic purposes, collection of dead wood, and the use of several adventitiouscultivated species associated with domestic spaces, could be reducing the pressure on the native species and on the Dry Chaco forest in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of biomass as an energy resource is key to the subsistence and development of diverse rural populations throughout the world. Particularly, the study of seasonal variation in firewood consumption contributes knowledge that can be used in detailed community management of this resource. In a rural community of the Patagonian steppe, seasonal variation in domestic consumption of fuel plants was studied. Possible socioeconomic conditioning factors (i.e., size of family unit, infrastructure of dwellings, number of combustion appliances used) were analysed, and seasonal variation in the richness of plant species used was determined. Average biomass consumption was found to be 12000 kg/year/home and 1479kg/year/per capita, with significantly higher values during winter (63 kg/day/home), than in summer (18.5 kg/day/home). The richness of fuel species used varied significantly during the year, and in line with biomass estimates, the highest use consensus for species was recorded during winter and autumn, with exotic species predominating. The maximum difference in species was registered in autumn, due to an increase in the stockpiling of wood bought for winter, when the preference is for high caloric value and accessible commercial price. During the year the main species used were Salix spp. and Nothofagus antarctica (G. Forst.) Oerst. The differential needs as seen from a local perspective, and their use strategies, require an integrated, multifaceted proposal, such as the progressive incorporation of high efficiency stoves and the implementation of local wooded areas for firewood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Brazil, the whale watching is practiced with different species, such as whales, dolphins, and porpoises. This activity facilitates the growth of the economic activities of communities in many regions of the country, and it may be a tool for awareness about the marine preservation and conservation. Moreover, the whale or dolphin watching also impacts native species. The Fernando de Noronha Archipelago (FN) is a worldwide watching tourism site due to the time of the development of activities and the ease to watch cetaceans, mainly the spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris). The aim of this study was to characterize the dolphin watching in FN. Additionally, we will investigate the applicability of the "Tourism Area Life Cycle" (TALC) approach for a tourism activity, identifying the main events or stages that promoted significant changes throughout the history of the activity in the archipelago. We observed that both landbased and boatbased (boat trips) are available in FN. The boat trips are more common and involve the triple of tourists than landbased watching. However, the last provides more informative and educational component. The history of dolphin watching tourism in FN was developed concomitantly with the tourism destination of the archipelago as a whole. Through TALC analysis, dolphin watching in FN had its development together with the destination development and, currently, both areas present stagnation stage indicators. In addition, the landbased watching, for being less impacting and more educative, has potential to increase the visitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]