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Abstract: The IEA CCS Roadmap highlighted the significance that CCS will need to play in achieving an atmospheric CO2 concentration stabilization of 450 ppm. In the scenario it is based on, CCS will provide approximately 20% of the total CO2 emissions reductions out to 2050. Achieving this contribution of emissions reductions will require an ambitious CCS growth-path, with 100 projects needed globally by 2020 and over 3000 by 2050. In both 2020 and 2050 the major developing countries, including South Africa will need to contribute to CCS deployment. South Africa has a heavily coal-dependent economy with 94 % of electricity production coming from coal. In addition to this, South Africa also meets approximately 30% of its domestic fuel -oil demand through the conversion o f coal and gas to transportation fuels. The combination of these two factors means that South Africa is as dependant on coal as any country in the world, placing the country as the 13th largest CO2 emitter in the world. Currently South Africa is experiencing electricity shortages where the reserve margin is below desired levels on a daily basis. Consequently, deployment of electricity generation capacity is seen as a priority. With the slow development of renewable energy and the deployment of nuclear energy currently under review, the required short term increase in electricity production is likely to come from new, coal plant that will be expected to be in operation for 50–60 years, thus continuing the country’s dependence on coal for some time to come. At the climate change negotiations in Copenhagen, South Africa announced that it would take nationally appropriate mitigation actions to enable a reduction in national GHG emissions equating to a deviation of 34% below the “Business as Usual” emissions growth trajectory by 2020 and a 42% deviation below the below “Business as Usual” emissions growth trajectory by 2025, pended upon the provision of sufficient funding and technology support. Given all these factors, CCS could be a crucial technology for South Africa in the near future. This paper looks to discuss the current status of CCS in South Africa. This includes looking at the key outcomes of the recently released South African CCS Research and Development Roadmap and the milestones it outlines, such as the development of a geological storage atlas by 2010, a CO2 test injection by 2016, and a demonstration project operating by 2020. It also looks at how the South African government is positioned toward CCS, including how CCS fits with the countries priorities of poverty alleviation, economic growth, sustainable development, job creation and ensuring the most efficient use of domestic resources. In addition the paper looks at the manner in which the South African government could go about regulating the operation of CCS projects. The paper will discuss the options available to South Africa to fund CCS demonstration and deployment domestically including via the clean development mechanism (in the event that the question of using this mechanism in the CCS context is dealt with at the international level), development banks and other, appropriate, development finance institutions. Public awareness and engagement on CCS will also be covered, given the crucial role the public play in the smooth progress of projects. Finally the paper will look at international collaboration on CCS including the role South Africa can play internationally and what more the international CCS community can offer. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Power generation processes with CCS that are capable of operating at variable load will be needed to achieve deep reductions in emissions of CO2 to the atmosphere. This paper assesses the effects of operating load factor on costs of coal and gas fired power generation processes with CCS and analyses the emissions and costs of fossil fuel fired plants in an electricity system that includes 35% wind and 25% nuclear generation. The paper shows how the costs of generation increase at an increasing rate as the emissions are reduced using power plants with integrated CCS such as post combustion capture, because many of the CCS plants have to operate at low load factors. This could be avoided by using coal gasification plants with CCS which feed hydrogen to underground buffer storage and then to flexible combined and open cycle gas turbines. The gasification, CO2 capture and storage equipment would operate at base load which would avoid potential practical difficulties of flexible operation and reduce costs. Emissions from the fossil fuel plants in the system with wind and nuclear generation could be reduced to 16 g/kWh at electricity costs competitive with coal-based post combustion capture with emissions of 140 g/kWh. Emissions from the overall electricity system including the wind and nuclear would be 6 g/kWh. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Coal is central to China’s continued economic growth and CCS is one of the most promising technological solutions to curb the CO2 emitted from the continued use of coal. This paper introduces some areas of recent R&D on CCS in China and focuses, in particular, on the Near Zero Emission Coal (NZEC) project, a China-UK CCS initiative. NZEC is being undertaken in three phases, with the current project comprising the first phase. The ultimate aim of NZEC, following Phase 3, is to have constructed and operated a coal-fired power plant with integral CCS in China. In this paper, some of the early progress made in NZEC Phase 1 is described. Launched in November 2007, the objectives of Phase 1 are to build confidence in CCS and to explore technology options for demonstrating coal-fired power generation with CCS in China. The Phase 1 partnership of nine leading UK organisations and 20 from China demonstrates the strong collaborative working relationship that exists between China and the UK, at all levels, to develop CCS as a key climate change mitigation technology. Apart from NZEC, China is involved in several national and international CCS initiatives and some of these will be touched upon in this paper. The success of the 18-month first phase will, to a large extent, be measured against its contribution to increasing CCS capacity in China and against strengthened links between Chinese and British experts. Activities designed to raise capacity are described. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The BIGCO2 R&D (BIGCO2) Platform is an international collaborative research project aiming at developing several enabling technologies and innovative solutions supporting a large-scale deployment of CO2 capture from power generation and underground storage of CO2. All main routes for CO2 capture are investigated. The project is coordinated by SINTEF Energy Research and the budget of the current project period (2007-2011) is 16 M€. BIGCO2 builds knowledge and technology underpinning demonstration of power generation with carbon capture and storage (CCS) at industrial scale. The project aims at closing critical knowledge gaps in the CO2 chain to enable sustainable power generation from fossil fuels based on carbon capture and underground storage of CO2. BIGCO2 is unique in terms size, diversity, and the fact that it comprises the whole CO2 chain. The project includes extensive international collaborative effort bringing together expertise and research infrastructure of competent research institutes and universities, supported by leading vendors, energy companies, and oil and gas companies. This paper presents the structure, the original objectives and the achievements of BIGCO2. Further, for each research task, the results are analyzed in light of the objectives. Each task leader has analyzed the results in the following context of: originally stated objectives, results, and if the results meet the objectives. The purpose of BIGCO2 is to develop new knowledge to enable power generation with CCS. Tangible objectives are: 90% CO2 capture rate, 50% cost reduction, and a fuel-to-electricity penalty less than 7% compared with state-of-the-art power generation. Partners of the Consortium are: Statoil, GE Global Research, Statkraft, Aker Clean Carbon, Shell, TOTAL, ConocoPhillips, ALSTOM, DLR, TUM, NTNU, CICERO, SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, SINTEF Petroleum Research, and SINTEF Energy Research. The University of Oslo is a subcontractor to the project. Further, BIGCO2 benefits from a strong collaboration between the combustion research facility at Sandia National Laboratories (USA) and SINTEF Energy Research. The main sponsor of BIGCO2 is the Research Council of Norway, with considerable co-funding from the industry partners and Gassnova. The research challenges and approach are extensively presented in . [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Coupling flexible power generation with Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) technology may be important for substantial reductions in CO2 emissions. In this paper we consider some of the implications of flexible power plant operation on the CCS process. Specifically, we consider the CCS chain capacity selection decision, by which we mean the choice of the optimal plant size, to understand what determines the amount of CO2 that is efficient to capture and how the decision to invest in CCS chain capacity is affected by price volatility of CO2 emissions quotas. We found that the plant''s emissions profile determined a range of CCS capacities that could be efficient with the tradeoff between the price of CO2 emissions quotas and the cost of CCS technology determining the specific optimal chain capacity. Secondly, investment into CCS technology for a flexible load power plant was more likely to be delayed in a multiple time point investment decision tree model as a result of price volatility, compared to investment in CCS technology on a base load power plant. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology is one of the most effective way of reducing emission. In this paper, we present a carbon capture investment model of power producer under carbon price and CCS technology uncertainties with real option theory. Then the investment t iming of CCS is explored by numerical simulation, the results indicate that the carbon price volatility and technological improvement of carbon capture will both delay carbon capture investment, and power producers will choose not to invest if the volatility is big enough. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper we analyze the relative importance and mutual behavior of two competing base-load electricity generation options that each are capable of contributing significantly to the abatement of global CO2 emissions: Nuclear energy and coal-based power production complemented with CO2 capture and storage (CCS). We also investigate how, in scenarios developed with an integrated assessment model that simulates the economics of a climate-constrained world, the prospects for nuclear energy would change if exogenous limitations on the spread of nuclear technology were relaxed. Using the climate change economics model WITCH we find that until 2050 the growth rates of nuclear electricity generation capacity would become comparable to historical rates observed during the 1980s. Given that nuclear energy continues to face serious challenges and contention, we inspect how extensive the improvements of coal-based power equipped with CCS technology would need to be if our economic optimization model is to significantly scale down the construction of new nuclear power plants. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Consistent with other published studies, the modelling presented here reveals that baseload power plants are the first aspects of the electricity sector to decarbonize and are essentially decarbonized once CO2 permit prices exceed a certain threshold ($90/ton CO2 in this study). The decarbonization of baseload electricity is met by significant expansions of nuclear power and renewable energy generation technologies as well as the application of carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) technologies applied to both coal and natural gas fired power plants. Relatively little attention has been paid thus far to whether intermediate and peaking units would respond the same way to a climate policy given the very different operational and economic context that these kinds of electricity generation units operate under. In this paper, the authors discuss key aspects of the load segmentation methodology used to imbed a varying electricity demand within the GCAM (a state-of-the-art Integrated Assessment Model) energy and economic modelling framework and present key results on the role CCS technologies could play in decarbonizng subpeak and peak generation (encompassing only the top 10% of the load) and under what conditions. To do this, the authors have modelled two hypothetical climate policies that require 50% and 80% reductions in US emissions from business as usual by the middle of this century. Intermediate electricity generation is virtually decarbonized once carbon prices exceed approximately $150/ton CO2. When CO2 permit prices exceed $160/ton CO2, natural gas power plants with CCS have roughly the same marketshare as conventional gas plants in serving subpeak loads. The penetration of CCS into peak load (upper 6% here) is minimal under the scenarios modeled here suggesting that CO2 emissions from this aspect of the U.S. electricity sector would persist well into the future even with stringent CO2 emission control policies in place. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In May 2007, E.ON Group (E.ON) set an ambitious target for reducing the specific CO2 emissions of the overall group’s electricity generation. By 2030, E.ON will reduce the specific CO2 emissions to 360 grams per kilowatt hour, half the 1990 figure. Thus, besides increasing the share of renewables and maintaining the nuclear share, E.ON identified the need to advance the technology of fossil fuel fired power plants. E.ON pursues a strategy of replacing power stations at the end of their life cycle with new, state-of-the-art power stations which are ready to be equipped with CCS (carbon capture and storage) and therefore “capture ready”. Moreover, E.ON is developing CO2 capture and storage as this technology has the potential to drastically reduce emissions from coal-fired plants. Beginning in 2020, E.ON intends to have large scale CCS technology available. E.ON’s coordinated strategy encompasses research, development and demonstration (RD&D) and is directed towards pre combustion capture, oxyfuel and post combustion capture with a focus on the latter. E.ON is working together with international partners to further develop the existing technologies for capturing of CO2 by testing advanced technologies in several pilot plants at our sites. The goal of the pilot projects is to optimise the downstream capture of CO2 from flue gas (post combustion capture) hence reducing the auxiliary power consumption of the capture process. An update on the pilot projects, suppliers and achievement made will be given. Besides improving the capture process itself the technology needs a significant increase of the treatable flue gas capacity compared to today’s limits known from chemical industry. Therefore E.ON is also involved in the development of demo scale projects proving the feasibility of the full CCS chain (including transport and storage). E.g. our Kingsnorth power station in the UK has entered the next stage of the UK Government’s carbon capture and storage (CCS) competition after developers. We submitted an Outline Solution Bid competition on 9 November 2009. The competition is aiming to deliver the UK’s first fullscale CCS demonstration project. We have come to an agreement with both the European Commission and the Dutch Government on the funding of our ROAD-project. This is our joint project with Electrabel (part of GDF SUEZ) at RotterdamMaasvlakte (NL). The Dutch part of the funding is now before the European Commission for State Aid approval. We will report about the projects and the progress made in our market units. In addition E.ON is engaged in the development of storage sites and transport routes for CO2. Our business unit E.ON Gas Storage is involved in several research and development activities. The paper will highlight E.ON’s main CCS activities. An overview will be given as well as an update on the status of the current projects and available results. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The paper presents the structure and achievements of the BIGCO2 R&D Platform, an international collaborative research project aiming at developing several enabling technologies and innovative solutions supporting a large-scale deployment of CO2 capture from power generation and underground storage of CO2. All main routes for CO2 capture are investigated, and emphasis is put on combining experimental work with theoretical analyses. The project is coordinated by SINTEF Energy Research and the budget of the current project period (2007–2011) is 16 M€. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper provides a financial analysis for new supercritical pulverized coal plants with carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) that compares the effects of two relevant climate policies. First, an updated cost estimate is presented for new supercritical pulverized coal plants, both with and without CCS. The capital cost escalation of recent years can be attributed to rising materials, plant supply, and plant contractor constraints. This estimate is then compared with recent estimates from public sources. Second, several current and proposed public policies relevant to CCS are presented. Finally, a financial analysis is performed to evaluate the effectiveness of two likely US carbon regulations on deploying Nth-plant CCS technology. The major conclusion is that the leading US carbon cap-and-trade bills will likely not be sufficient to deploy CCS technology in a manner consistent with a 550 ppm CO2 stabilization scenario. A more aggressive carbon policy including CCS research, development, and demonstration must be considered to achieve this goal with significant CCS deployment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: While the share of renewables has been growing rapidly since the 1990s, at present electricity generation in Germany is still based on coal and nuclear energy, with nuclear power and lignite covering almost the whole base load electricity generation, and hard coal serving as the main energy carrier for medium-load generation. However, both coal and nuclear energy are facing major challenges. The future of coal in Germany is uncertain against the background of strong climate policy regulations and issues of public acceptance. In line with current legislation, nuclear power is being phased out. In its strategy for CO2 emissions reduction, the German government has identified the carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies as one of the options. Major government papers highlight the importance of further research and development (R&D) in the field of CCS technologies. German industry supports R&D activities on CCS by participating in the work of public–private partnerships (PPP), e.g. the COORETEC initiative, the GEOTECHNOLOGIEN programme, as well as by implementing CCS demonstration projects. In view of the difficulties coal has been facing with regard to public acceptance in Germany, the public acceptance of CCS technologies is recognised as an important precondition for their large-scale deployment. Thus, research on public acceptance of CCS is one of the priorities accompanying R&D on these technologies. Besides the strategy of fostering national R&D activities on CCS, Germany is actively participating in international networks and organisations dealing with the CCS issues. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China has built at least 70 GW of new coal- fired power installed capacity annually since 2005 and the growth is expected to continue (CEC, 2008). Chinese government, industry and academic stakeholders perceive that China will not mandate new plants to be built with carbon dioxide capture and storage systems in the short term and there is little incentive even to contemplate the first steps needed to fit plants with capture equipment [Reiner, D., Liang, X., Sun, X., Zhu, Y., Li, D., 2007. Stakeholder attitudes towards carbon dioxide capture and storage technologies in China, International Climate Change Conference, Hong Kong, May 29–31 2007]. We investigate the value of making new plants CO2 Capture Ready (CCR), which would enable them to retrofit to capture CO2 without unnecessary additional costs when the appropriate policy and /or economic drivers are in place (IEA, 2007). In order to understand the value and investment characteristics of CCR in China, a typical 600 MW pulverized-coal -fired ultra-supercritical power plant, locating at Guangdong province, was examined. Combined with a detailed engineering assessment, we obtained the costs for different CCR scenarios. To analyze CCR investment opportunities, we apply a cash flow model for valuing Capture Options, as developed in [Liang, X., Reiner, D., Gibbins J., Li J., 2007. Fianncing CCR coal-fired power plants in China by issuing capture options, EPRG Working Paper Series, EPRG0728, Cambridge, December. Available at: www.electricitypolicy.org.uk/pubs/wp/eprg0728.pdf]. Results are obtained by Monte-Carlo simulation, based on engineering surveys and the IEA (2007) CCR study, as well as plant performance information and expert projections on carbon prices, coal prices and electricity prices. CCR investments are justified by factors such as higher retrofitting probabilities, lower early-closure probabilities and fair economic return. However, the economic case for CCR largely depends on the type of investments made, for example, CCR-essential investments tend to be more economic than additional non-essential CCR features such as CCR Essential with clutched low-pressure turbines. Carbon price, coal price and discount rate also were found to have significant impacts on the economics of CCR. Overall, it appears that the value of capture options are significant, and therefore clear retrofitting strategies would be valuable for any CCR investment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Coal is China’s primary fuel for power generation and will almost certainly remain so for the foreseeable future. China had an installed power generation capacity of a little over 700GWe in 2007, which is projected to nearly double within the next 20 years. NZEC (Near Zero Emission Coal) is a major Sino-British initiative on carbon capture and storage. One of its key aims is to complete the work required to construct a coal-fired power generation plant in China with CCS. The first phase of NZEC is a feasibility study, due to complete in late 2009, in which options for CCS in China are being explored. As part of the feasibility study, an energy systems analysis using the China MARKAL model is being undertaken to provide a perspective on the energy technologies that may be deployed in China to meet its energy needs. The energy situation in China is being analysed, with a detailed investigation undertaken of the various technologies and fuels employed at present. Based on growth forecasts and national plans for China, predictions will be made of the technologies and fuels that may be deployed to meet its future needs. The role of coal and the various technology options for utilising that coal will be identified. An estimate of the CO2 emissions arising from the utilisation of coal and the potential impact of their release to the atmosphere will be made. The potential for CCS to reduce CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, and the cost and impact of deploying CCS will be examined. In this paper, the authors will provide a progress review of this analysis and present provisional results. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Considering the traditional coal-based energy infrastructure in the German state North Rhine-Westphalia the question arises how to face the needs of embanking climate change. To reduce greenhouse gas intensive electricity generation in the Ruhr area, the introduction of carbon capture and storage (CCS) is an option of particular relevance. The paper investigates and discusses possibilities of setting up a CCS infrastructure in NRW. It shall clarify whether, and possibly how, highly efficient conventional fossil fired power plants could be refitted with CO2 capture to flexibly react to potentially changing climate policy conditions and to keep up with the market. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper deals with recent assessments and results of the EU-based DYNAMIS 1 [1] EU/EC Contract #019672 under the 6th Framework Programme, “Towards Hydrogen and Electricity Production with Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage”, in brief: DYNAMIS. Start-up date: 01 March 2006. Coordinator: SINTEF Energy Research, Trondheim, Norway. project, which - since March 2006 - has been investigating decarbonisation of fossil fuels (bituminous coal, lignite and natural gas), with the inclusion of carbon capture and geological storage of the CO2 (CCS). The project was established by leading European RTD providers and industries, and sponsored by the European Commission under its 6th Framework Programme. Main deliverables of the DYNAMIS project comprise pre-engineering studies and a subset of recommendations to the European Commission with regards to its HYPOGEN Demonstrator Programme. According to prerequisites established by the European Commission, the HYPOGEN Demonstrator is planned to offer electricity, hydrogen and CO2 at large scale - scheduled for commercial operations to commence by 2012–2015. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Over the next two decades, our nation will need to add a substantial amount of new power generation capacity. The possibility of more stringent environmental regulations for greenho use gas emissions in the utility sector has opened a unique window of opportunity for integrated gasification combined cycles (IGCCs) equipped with carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) to participate significantly in this expansion. This paper analyzes several advanced technologies under development in the Department of Energy (DOE) research and development (R&D) portfolio that have the potential to improve process efficiency, reduc e capital and operating expense, and increase plant availability resulti ng in a significant reduction in the cost of electricity for plants that capture carbon. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The European DYNAMIS project is part of the HYPOGEN quick-start programme and aims at investigating viable routes for large-scale cost-effective combined hydrogen and electricity production with integrated CO2 Capture and geological Storage. This paper presents the environmental evaluation carried out for each technology option studied, producing Hydrogen and Electricity with CCS. The methodology used is based on Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) principles and concentrates on the assessment of two criteria: GHG emissions and non renewable primary energy consumption. As with other evaluations performed in DYNAMIS (mainly focused on technical and economic aspects), these results lead to the selection of best concepts in terms of environmental efficiency by comparing and weighing up positive and negative effects (i.e GHG emissions reduction and increase of non-renewable primary energy consumption). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper, the use of two Water Gas Shift (WGS) Hydrogen Separator Membrane Reactors (HSMRs) is proposed downstream of a natural gas Autothermal Reformer (ATR), for hydrogen and electricity co-production with low carbon dioxide emissions. Starting from an advanced ATR plant based on state-of-the-art technologies with carbon capture, a novel configuration is proposed. Application of HSMRs allows a significant layout simplification and the reduction of the number of components. Hydrogen separation by means of membrane reactors allows carbon capture higher than 99% compared to 87% of the reference case. Simulation results show that the membrane based power plant achieves higher equivalent fuel conversion efficiency even with a significant amount of electricity produced. Moreover, the innovative solution allows to produce electricity and hydrogen at different ratio without affecting the overall performances. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]