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Abstract: Shell CO2 Storage B.V. (SCS) is planning to inject up to 10 million tonnes of CO2 in two depleted gas fields: Barendrecht (BRT) and Barendrecht-Ziedewij (BRTZ). This paper describes the process of selecting an optimised commercial value chain design for capture, transportation, injection and marketing of the CO2, requiring a helicopter view of the full system from source to sink over the 30 year injection life cycle of the project. The commercial concepts considered, selection criteria used and the selected concept will be discussed. Second, the economic modelling criteria for the main value drivers of the project will be discussed and the main differences with traditional petroleum economics will be indicated. Although the project is not pursued for financial profit, the use of the evaluation methodology described below has resulted in an optimal value proposition and value chain for Government, project, sub-contractors and society. The analysis showed that the project differed significantly from other CCS projects due to the relative weight of the transportation value component. The risk and uncertainty approach for the economic modelling of the key value drivers of the projects has resulted in a robust economic model to assist decision making for any changes to the project in a rapidly changing political environment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The offshore gas fields in The Netherlands provide a storage capacity of about 1 Gt, which will become available over the next few decades. Existing production facilities may be re-used for injection. Uncertainties in storage capacity, injection rates and time of availability require an analysis of the feasibility of storing CO2 at the rates currently projected for the period 2015–2050. This paper investigates the availability of storage capacity and the feasibility of injecting CO2 at the rate that current capture scenarios foresee. The cost of storage in depleted gas fields is estimated, assuming either re-use of existing installations or the construction of new platforms and wells. Unit cost of storage, non-discounted, in the range of 10 € /t CO2 is feasible for larger fields; costs for small fields are estimated to range up to 40 € /t CO2. Constructing new, dedicated facilities is not always the more expensive option, due to sometimes long hibernation times and higher operational cost of existing facilities. Two capture scenarios are used for the Rotterdam and Amsterdam areas, with captured volumes increasing to 25 Mt/yr or 40 Mt/yr. In both cases, injection rate limitations become apparent when 70–75% of the storage capacity is used, which is around 2055 and 2045, respectively. To ensure continuity of storage, alternatives for storage in offshore gas fields need to be in place by then. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The onshore Barendrecht CO2 storage project in the densely populated West of the Netherlands is designed to prevent CO2 to migrate out of the deep underground through geological formations and outside of wells. Achieving maximum safe containment is facilitated by selecting depleted gas fields as CO2 storages having stored natural gas over millions of years. This also allows choosing a final storage pressure that is lower than the ambient natural pressure in the surrounding rock formations. The inverse pressure gradient prohibits potential outflow from the storage reservoir. Additional proven safety barriers are the existence of sealing caprocks and large saline aquifers that overlie the storage reservoir. These saline aquifers alone have the capacity to sequester multitudes of the CO2 volumes that are planned to be stored in the depleted gas reservoirs. It is widely accepted that wells hold the main potential of forming a migration path. In the case of Barendrecht this would mainly mean potential migration of reservoir fluids of overlying formations into the CO2 storage reservoir as pressure equalization–returning to a natural equilibrium as existed prior to start of gas production without any overpressures–is not expected to occur before hundreds to thousands of years. Nevertheless assessing the evolution of current and future well integrity with CO2 injection is crucial for ensuring containment of the injected CO2 during injection and in the long term. The Barendrecht fields have respectively two and three drilled and completed wells penetrating the CO2 storage reservoir. This paper describes the most relevant subsurface related highlights from various studies that were carried out in connection with the Barendrecht CO2 storage project. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Over the past few years several geochemical evaluations of CO2 storage in Dutch potential reservoirs are carried out, including predictions of the short- and long-term impact of CO2 on the reservoir using geochemical modelling. The initial mineralogy of the reservoir is frequently obtained from core analysis and is then used to compute the formation water composition. In this paper geochemical modelling with TOUGHREACT is used to predict and compare the short- and long-term geochemical impact of CO2 injection into three reservoirs. The mineralogical composition of these reservoirs is an assemblage based on commonly observed minerals from the Buntsandstein and Rotliegend formations. These formations contain potential onshore and offshore CO2 storage locations in the Netherlands. The results predict drying out and salt precipitation in the near-well area, due to water evaporation by the injected dry CO2. Several mineral transformations are predicted, dominated by the transformation of albite into dawsonite, thereby fixing CO2. Due to the relatively low density of dawsonite, the porosity significantly decreases, which can lead to a pore pressure increase. Disabling of dawsonite precipitation in the simulations, thereby taking into account the ongoing debate on dawsonite stability, only shows a small increase of the porosity. Future (experimental) work should be focused on dawsonite occurrence for accurate predictions of the long-term reservoir integrity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: E.ON and Electrabel are jointly developing the ROAD (Rotterdam, Opslag en Afvang Demonstratie) CCS project, to demonstrate capture, transport and storage of CO2 at a scale of 250 MW equivalent. The ROAD project has now been under development for one year and several challenges have come up and have been overcome by the project team. Funding for the project has now been secured from different sources including the European Commission and the Dutch Government. This funding enables the project development, and each source set their own requirements for the project, which lead to project challenges. This paper outlines the most important of these challenges. It briefly describes Front End Development theory on project development as used in oil and gas industry and illustrates that the constraints will force the project team to deal differently than preferred in theory. Possibly this might lead to a price to pay for the project, but theory cannot be applied without risk of losing funding. Hopefully this article can contribute as well to the development of other CCS projects. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Shell CO2 Storage B.V. (SCS) is planning for the injection of some 10 million tonnes of CO2 in two depleted gas fields Barendrecht (BRT) and Barendrecht–Ziedewij (BRTZ), onshore, Western part of the Netherlands. This paper describes the process of selection of a tailor-made conceptual design for transportation and compression of the CO2, requiring a helicopter view of the full system from source to sink over the 30 year injection life cycle of the project. The concepts considered, selection criteria used and the selected concept will be subsequently discussed. The evaluation has eventually resulted in the selected concept of booster compression to 40 bar near the source, pipeline transport and an additional injection compressor at the injection well sites. Since the project will be situated in a densely populated area and is considered by many as a “new” activity, and because the success of the project is primarily defined by its safe execution, the project team has taken a “safety first” approach from the beginning of the project. For the conceptual design this has meant, among others, a drive to avoid uncertainties and/or to make (very) conservative assumptions in case uncertainties could not be avoided. The conservative approach has evolved in project-specific measures within the selected concept. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Dutch Ministry of Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM) engaged Jacobs Consultancy to develop a definition and measuring tool aimed at quantifying the CO2 Capture Readiness of a combustion plant. The tool developed tests the level and completeness of pre-project execution information. The testing of pre-project information is a standard practice in the refining and petrochemical industry and Jacobs Consultancy has adapted and tailored these practices to develop the Capture Readiness tool. The tool was developed in 2008 and was pilot tested on two already permitted coal fired power plant projects in 2009. The Capture Readiness tool is similar in concept to the well known Project Definition Rating Index originally introduced by the Construction Industry Institute for Major Capital Projects. The tool quantifies the readiness of a project to accommodate future CO2 capture and parallels the phased approached to Major Capital Projects used by the Project Definition Rating Index. A short introduction to the application of the PDRI methodology to test the completeness of the project development information–often also referred to as Front End Loading or FEL, is included in this paper to establish the parallel approach we have used in the development of the Capture Readiness tool. The Jacobs Consultancy Capture Readiness tool is then discussed in more detail. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Netherlands is heavily dependent on the success of carbon capture and storage (CCS) for its decarbonisation policy. This paper discusses several ways how CCS in the Dutch power sector can be stimulated after the round of demonstration activities up to 2015. It describes recent policy developments in the UK, US and Germany, and concludes that a policy package could be the most useful way forward if it includes a financial incentive to cover additional costs of CCS. The costs of financial support could amount to 1–3% of the Dutch electricity bill, even with CO2 prices in the € 20–50 range until 2030. A policy package could also include a regulatory instrument like an emissions performance standard (EPS) or other regulation for new coal-fired power plants to provide additional certainty. The EU Treaty explicitly leaves room for more stringent regulation from Member States required to protect the environment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper aims to provide insight into the current drivers and barriers and the possible government responses needed to overcome these hurdles towards large scale CCS deployment in the Netherlands. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper explores the potential role of CCS under different policy options in the Dutch electricity sector. A bottom-up simulation model is used to evaluate different policy scenarios. The results show that CCS plays only a moderate role for gradually rising CO2 prices. By using the scale advantages in CO2 transport already for the first CCS plants comparable to the level of large scale transport, the competitiveness of CCS is improved considerably. Furthermore, our results indicate that different policy options stimulate different types of CCS technologies. Finally, stimulating CCS and renewable energy sources simultaneously is more cost effective in the long run than stimulating solely CCS. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper describes the reach done in the Dutch CAPTECH programme. The research aims to reduce the CO2 capture cost with 50%. In order to achieve this, a wide portfolio of future technologies is being investigated. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]