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Purpose of Review: There are aspects of skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) that remain unresolved, such as current numbers, classification criteria, how best to define severity and predict the outcome, what diagnostic tests to perform, what new treatment options are available, or what the duration of antibiotic treatment should be. We have reviewed the literature over the last 18 months to clarify these issues and provide our opinion., Recent Findings: SSTIs are common and among the top 10 most frequent infections worldwide. They represent a burden on the healthcare system and have a major impact on the quality of life of patients. Regarding classification, the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) provides a practical guide that distinguishes between uncomplicated and complicated infections, acute and chronic wound infections, and necrotising and nonnecrotizing infections based on skin extension and tissue necrosis. With new microbiological and imaging diagnostic techniques, SSTIs can now be better diagnosed. New PCR techniques are available, and mass spectrometry can be applied to samples collected in liquid transport media. Moreover, new treatment methods such as photodynamic therapy, reactive oxygen, and phages are emerging. SSTI patients can be treated with shorter antibiotic courses if they receive an active drug with good tissue penetration. Antibiotic treatment in necrotizing infections can be shortened to 48 h after the last debridement., Summary: SSTIs remain a challenge regarding rapid and accurate diagnosis and clinical management., (Copyright © 2024 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose of Review: To provide a brief overview of drugs in Phase II and III of development for the treatment of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections (ABSSSI), offering insights into potential customized treatment options., Recent Findings: Several drugs are currently in advanced stages of evaluation for the treatment of ABSSSI, and numerous molecules are entering in the early development phases. Notably, many of these drugs exhibit unique mechanisms of action and interesting antimicrobial spectrum., Summary: Tailoring antibiotic therapy based on patient characteristics, likely pathogens, type, site and severity of ABSSSI is crucial. Given the inherent limitations of available treatments, the development of novel agents is a pivotal avenue. Such advancements hold promise for enhancing treatment efficacy and simplifying drug selection for ABSSSI in everyday clinical practice., (Copyright © 2024 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose of Review: This review comments on the current guidelines for the treatment of wound infections under definition of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections (ABSSSI). However, wound infections around a catheter, such as driveline infections of a left ventricular assist device (LVAD) are not specifically listed under this definition in any of the existing guidelines., Recent Findings: Definitions and classification of LVAD infections may vary across countries, and the existing guidelines and recommendations may not be equally interpreted among physicians, making it unclear if these infections can be considered as ABSSSI. Consequently, the use of certain antibiotics that are approved for ABSSSI may be considered as 'off-label' for LVAD infections, leading to rejection of reimbursement applications in some countries, affecting treatment strategies, and hence, patients' outcomes. However, we believe driveline exit site infections related to LVAD can be included within the ABSSSI definition., Summary: We argue that driveline infections meet the criteria for ABSSSI which would enlarge the 'on-label' antibiotic armamentarium for treating these severe infections, thereby improving the patients' quality of life., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc.)

Purpose of Review: Our purpose is to review the state-of-the-art on the management of skin and soft tissue infections (SSTI) in emergency departments (ED).Although the information is scarce, SSTI may account for 3-30% of all cases presenting to an ED, of which 25-40% require hospital admission.SSTI include very different entities in aetiology, location, pathogenesis, extension, and severity. Therefore, no single management can be applied to them all. A simple approach is to classify them as non-purulent, purulent, and necrotising, to which a severity scale based on their systemic repercussions (mild, moderate, and severe) must be added.The initial approach to many SSTIs often requires no other means than anamnesis and physical examination, but imaging tests are an indispensable complement in many other circumstances (ultrasound, computerized tomography, magnetic resonance imaging…). In our opinion, an attempt at etiological filiation should be made in severe cases or where there is suspicion of a causality other than the usual one, with tests based not only on cultures of the local lesion but also molecular tests and blood cultures., Recent Findings: Recent contributions of interest include the value of bedside ultrasound and the potential usefulness of biomarkers such as thrombomodulin to differentiate in early stages the presence of necrotising lesions not yet explicit.New antimicrobials will allow the treatment of many of these infections, including severe ones, with oral drugs with good bioavailability and for shorter periods., Summary: The ED has an essential role in managing SSTIs, in their classification, in decisions on when and where to administer antimicrobial treatment, and in the rapid convening of multidisciplinary teams that can deal with the most complex situations., (Copyright © 2023 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose of Review: Ceftaroline and ceftobiprole are advanced generation cephalosporins with activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). This review summarizes their clinical efficacy for complicated skin and soft tissue infections (cSSTIs)., Recent Findings: Both these agents retain excellent in vitro activity against both MRSA and Gram-negative isolates from patients with CSSTIs. Both these agents are registered for the management of cSSTIs based on the results of large scale phase III noninferiority trials. Ceftaroline and ceftobiprole are noninferior to the combination of vancomycin and aztreonam as this was assessed by their clinical cure rate at the test-of-cure visits. Furthermore, ceftobiprole is noninferior to comparators for the achievement of early clinical success at 72 h. Ceftaroline achieves 81% clinical cure against diabetic foot infections., Summary: Ceftaroline and ceftobiprole can be used as monotherapy for the treatment of cSSTIs., (Copyright © 2023 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose of Review: Managing antimicrobial therapy in patients with complicated skin and soft tissue infections (SSTI) constitutes a growing challenge due to the wide spectrum of potential pathogens and resistance phenotypes. Today, microbiological documentation relies on cultural methods. This review summarizes the available evidence regarding the clinical input of rapid microbiological diagnostic tools (RMDT) and their impact on the management of antimicrobial therapy in SSTI., Recent Findings: Accurate tools are already available for the early detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in SSTI samples and may help avoiding or shortening empirical anti-MRSA coverage. Further research is necessary to develop and evaluate RMDT detecting group A streptococci (e.g., antigenic test) and Gram-negative pathogens (e.g., multiplex PCR assays), including through point-of-care utilization. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) methods could provide pivotal information for the stewardship of antimicrobial therapy, especially in case of polymicrobial or fungal SSTI and in the immunocompromised host; however, a shortening in the turnaround time and prospective data regarding their therapeutic input are needed to better appraise the clinical positioning of these promising approaches., Summary: The clinical input of RMDT in SSTI is currently limited due to the scarcity of available dedicated assays and the polymicrobial feature of certain cases. NGS appears as a relevant tool but requires further developments before its implementation in routine clinical practice., (Copyright © 2023 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose of Review: The aim of this article is to review skin and soft tissue infections due to rapidly growing mycobacteria (RGM), with a particular focus on recently published literature (2021-2022)., Recent Findings: RGM are increasingly reported as a cause of skin and soft tissue infections, both in the community setting and as a cause of nosocomial outbreaks. Recent advances in molecular methods have expanded the number of species of RGM and resulted in increased diagnosis. New treatment options are under evaluation particularly for Mycobacterium abscessus , the most difficult-to-treat among RGM., Summary: RGM are an uncommon cause of skin and soft tissue infections and a high clinical suspicion together with advanced laboratory facilities are required for diagnosis. Species identification and antimicrobial susceptibility testing are essential to drive appropriate treatment, which combines surgical debridement with prolonged antimycobacterial combination therapy., (Copyright © 2023 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose of Review: To highlight the peculiarity of skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) in elderly patients and to provide useful elements for their optimal management., Recent Findings: In the COVID-19 era, early discharge from the hospital and implementation of outpatient management is of key importance., Summary: Elderly patients are at high risk of SSTIs due to several factors, including presence of multiple comorbidities and skin factors predisposing to infections. Clinical presentation may be atypical and some signs of severity, such as fever and increase in C-reactive protein, may be absent or aspecific in this patients population. An appropriate diagnosis of SSTIs in the elderly is crucial to avoid antibiotic overtreatment. Further studies should explore factors associated with bacterial superinfections in patients with pressure ulcers or lower limb erythema. Since several risk factors for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) may coexist in elderly patients, these subjects should be carefully screened for MRSA risk factors and those with high risk of resistant etiology should receive early antibiotic therapy active against MRSA. Physicians should aim to several objectives, including clinical cure, patient safety, early discharge and return to community. SSTIs in the elderly may be managed using long-acting antibiotics, but clinical follow-up is needed., (Copyright © 2023 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose of Review: Skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) are a leading cause of morbidity, emergency department visits and hospitalization. In recent years, the spread of carbapenem-resistant gram-negative bacteria (GNB) is also increasing in SSTIs. However, the armamentarium of available drugs is recently expanding as well. In this review, we reported the most recent data and about management and treatment of SSTIs caused by GNB, mainly for the treatment of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE), Pseudomonas spp and Acinetobacter spp., Recent Findings: The increasing incidence of carbapenem-resistant GNB is challenging for management and treatment, considering the high rate of inappropriate empiric and targeted antimicrobial treatments. The role of new antibiotics, mainly licensed for the treatment of other infections, is an object of continuous debate. As a matter of fact, no specific clinical trials on SSTIs have been performed for new drugs; however, recent data about the use in real life of new compounds in clinical practice are available., Summary: Some recently approved drugs are actually considered the backbone of targeted therapy in patients with severe infections caused by susceptible carbapenem-resistant GNB strains. Prompt diagnosis of cSSTIs is crucial and, when necessary, surgical debridement for source control of infection is the milestone of the treatment. The physicians should be confident to identify patients at high risk for multidrug-resistant pathogens to minimize inappropriate empiric therapy., (Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose of Review: Staphylococcus aureus is a pathogen incriminated in skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs), with methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) becoming the predominant cause and representing a significant burden to the healthcare system. The last updated Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) guidelines concerning MRSA infections and SSTIs management were published in 2011 and 2014, respectively. The UK updated guidelines for MRSA infection treatment were published in 2021. Older treatment options may be associated with toxicity and require frequent dosing. There is a paucity of recent reviews on the armamentarium of new agents for MRSA SSTIs treatment., Recent Findings: Since 2005, several new antibiotics received a fast-track approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for SSTI treatment. These drugs include delafloxacin, omadacycline, tedizolid, ceftaroline, dalbavancin, oritavancin and telavancin. In this manuscript, we will review the data that led to these new drugs approval and discuss their advantages and disadvantages in MRSA SSTIs management., Summary: MRSA is a major cause of SSTIs. Several novel therapies covering MRSA were FDA-approved for SSTIs. However, the current IDSA guidelines for MRSA infection and SSTIs as well as the recently published UK guidelines on MRSA treatment only consider these drugs as alternative choices or do not mention them at all., (Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose of Review: Skin and soft tissue infections account for a significant percentage of both community and nosocomial infections. Several nosological entities are included in this concept. However, there is a very scarce body of doctrine for their treatment based on randomised trials. Therefore, we considered it necessary to review current treatment guidelines to bring new recommendations and improvements to our colleagues. In this review of recent literature, we identified updated guidelines in this area by searching the databases PubMed, evidence-based medicine online, York University reviewers group, Cochrane, MBE-Trip and Sumsearch using the terms: soft tissue infection, therapy, guideline., Recent Findings: Developments focus on using new antimicrobials and on the prescription of shorter antibiotic treatment courses., Summary: With the development of new drugs and the current evidence of their use, there is a need to refine the appropriate drug's decision-making. Drugs with a long half-life, which allows weekly administration, can reduce hospital admission and length of stay with fewer healthcare resources. Shorter courses of antibiotics are recommended. The role of stewardship programmes will continue to expand. The surgical indication and its value are evident in many patients. Therefore, management should rely on a collaborative group with experience in this disease., (Copyright © 2022 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose of Review: The aim of the article is to present recent epidemiological, microbiological, and clinical data for the surgical, antimicrobial, and adjunctive management of necrotizing soft-tissue infections (NSTI)., Recent Findings: NSTI can be caused by a broad variety of organisms. Reports about NSTI caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria are increasing. Owing to the rareness of NSTI, general clinical awareness is low and prompt diagnosis is often delayed. New diagnostic instruments (scoring systems, MRI) have either a low accuracy or are time consuming and cannot guide clinicians reliable currently. The value of adjunctive measures (intravenous immunoglobulin, hyperbaric oxygen therapy) is uncertain as well. Morbidity and mortality in NSTI remain high, ranging from 20 up to over 30%., Summary: Early radical surgical debridement and empirical broad-spectrum antimicrobial treatment remain the cornerstones of therapy in NSTI. Further clinical research is necessary to shorten diagnostic pathways and to optimize surgical, antimicrobial, and adjunctive treatment., (Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose of Review: The aim of this study was to present recent microbiological, experimental, clinical and tolerance data for cotrimoxazole and clindamycin in the specific field of skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs)., Recent Findings: Staphylococcus aureus and streptococci remain the leading cause of SSTIs. Cotrimoxazole is a good anti-Gram-positive agent with preserved activity against methicillin-susceptible and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and streptococci. Although clindamycin has good methicillin-susceptible S. aureus activity, a growing number of resistant MRSA and streptococci have been reported. Strong experimental data support the antitoxin activity of clindamycin, but clinical observations remain scarce. Several recent randomized trials involving cotrimoxazole and/or clindamycin demonstrate the efficacy and tolerance of both drugs. The oral formulation of both drugs may facilitate the implementation of early switch and early discharge protocols in clinical practice., Summary: Recent publications demonstrate that cotrimoxazole and clindamycin remain reliable and realistic therapeutic approaches for SSTIs., (Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose of Review: In standard clinical practice, combined antibiotic treatment is used to treat severe skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs), whereby one of the drugs is usually a protein synthesis inhibitor antibiotic. However, evidence for this practice is only based on data from 'in vitro' studies, animal models and case reports. There are no randomized controlled trials. In the light of several new drugs marketed for the treatment of these infections, there is a need to revise the state of the art., Recent Findings: New reviews and systematic appraisals of the literature exist on the use of protein synthesis inhibitor antibiotics to treat severe SSTI. Several 'in vitro' studies have assessed the efficacy of some of the new drugs., Summary: Combination therapy, including an adjuvant protein synthesis inhibitor antibiotic for toxin suppression, should be used both in patients with severe SSTI and in those with moderate infection and risk factors for methicillin-resistant positive- or Panton-Valentine leukocidin positive-Staphylococcus aureus infection., (Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose of Review: The increase in skin and soft tissue infections (SSTI) because of multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens is a global concern. Although MDR Gram-negative bacteria (GNB) are often overlooked as a cause of SSTIs, their burden on the morbidity of many subgroups of patients is high. There is a paucity in the available treatment options and guidelines on how to treat these pathogens. This manuscript reviews the management of SSTIs caused by carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (CRPA), Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB), and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. We also highlight a few novel antibiotics that show promise in the future management of MDR-GNB SSTIs., Recent Findings: Studies on treatment options of MDR-GNB SSTIs are scarce. Most clinical trials investigating new antibiotics have addressed conditions such as complicated intraabdominal infections, complicated urinary infections, and respiratory infections. CREs are a heterogenous group of pathogens with various mechanisms of resistance dictating susceptibility to different antimicrobial agents. Ceftazidime--avibactam, and meropenem--vaborbactam have potent activity against some of the CREs, especially Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC) producers. Several novel antibiotics have potent activity against CRPA SSTIs, such as ceftazidime--avibactam, ceftolozane--tazobactam, cefiderocol, delafloxacin, finafloxacin, and murepavadin. Cefiderocol may also play an important role in the management of CRAB SSTIs, along with plazomicin and eravacycline., Summary: MDR-GNB play a major role in SSTIs in patients with underlying immunodeficiency, as well as burn or trauma-related injuries. With the alarming global rise in MDR-GNB resistance, antibiotic therapy for SSTIs is challenging and must be guided by in-vitro susceptibility results. Currently, data extrapolated from other indications and combination therapy can be used empirically pending microbiological data and susceptibilities. Novel antibiotics are currently under development. It is hoped that future clinical trials will be designed to address MDR-GNB SSTIs.

Purpose of Review: To summarize the available efficacy and safety data of novel agents for treating acute bacterial skin and skin-structure infections (ABSSSI), focusing on those active against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)., Recent Findings: There are now several agents active against MRSA that are approved for the treatment of ABSSSI, including tedizolid, ceftaroline, dalbavancin, telavancin, oritavancin, delafloxacin, and omadacycline. In addition, iclaprim has completed phase-3 randomized clinical trials (RCTs)., Summary: Considering the similar efficacy that arose from direct comparisons in phase-3 RCTs, in order to adopt the best approach for treating ABSSSI on patient-tailored basis, the different safety profiles and formulations of the different available agents should be balanced by taking into account the specific features of each treated patient in terms of baseline comorbidities, related risk of toxicity, need for hospitalization, possibility of early discharge, and expected adherence to outpatient oral therapy.

Purpose of Review: Skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) with a wide spectrum of disease severity ranging from uncomplicated to potentially lethal are still a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. The burden of carbapenem-resistant gram-negative bacteria (CR-GNB) in SSTIs is increasing. Luckily, the armamentarium of drugs available is recently expanding as well. The present review looks at data on the role CR-GNB in SSTIs and on the old and new drugs available for the treatment of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE), Pseudomonas, and Acinetobacter., Recent Findings: The most recent information concern the availability of new antibiotics that, even if no specific clinical trials on complicated SSTIs (cSSTIs) have been performed, may play a role in clinical practice also for the treatment of cSSTIs caused by CR-GNB. Ceftolozane-tazobactam has been found to be a good option for CR Pseudomonas infections including SSTIs. Ceftazidime-avibactam is approved for several indications, including aerobic GNB infections with limited treatment options. Meropenem-vaborbactam therapy has been associated with decreased mortality in infections caused by CRE. Eravacycline has the potential to become useful for the treatment of CR Acinetobacter for which the treatment options are limited., Summary: In the carbapenem resistance era, the physicians goal should be to stratify patients according to risk factors for CR-GNB causing SSTIs in order to minimize inappropriate initial therapies. Some recently approved drugs seem destined to become the backbone of target therapy in patients with severe infections caused by susceptible CR-GNB strains. Prompt diagnosis of cSSTIs is crucial and, when feasible, surgical debridement as source control is essential as well.

Purpose of Review: An increase of skin and soft tissue infections involving Staphylococcus aureus has been reported in community and hospital settings. Methicillin resistance in S. aureus is associated with treatment failure and increased mortality. Recently, new antimicrobials with enhanced activity against methicillin-resistant Staph. aureus have been approved for the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections. Among these, novel oxazolidinones and lipoglycopeptides represent options with favorable pharmacokinetic characteristics and safety profiles., Recent Findings: Newly approved compounds include tedizolid, characterized by the availability of both oral and intravenous formulation and once daily administration and dalbavancin, a long-acting antimicrobial allowing for weekly administration. These new molecules present advantages, such as enhanced activity against multidrug-resistant Gram-positive bacteria and favorable safety profiles., Summary: We have reviewed the pharmacokinetic characteristics and the implications for use in skin and soft tissue infections of tedizolid and dalbavancin. Advantages associated with the use of these compounds include the possibility for early patient discharge, reduced hospital length of stay, and outpatient treatment, with potential impact on morbidity, mortality, and overall health-care costs.

Purpose of Review: Breast surgery is considered a clean surgical procedure; nevertheless, infection rates are often higher than those reported after other similarly considered clean surgeries (e.g., thyroid, hernia). Acute bacterial skin and soft tissue infections, mostly surgical site infections and implant-associated infections are commonest events that could complicate postoperative care., Recent Findings: Risk of infection is closely related to surgery procedure itself and patients host factors. Gram-positive bacteria with pattern of antimicrobial resistance are increasingly isolated and before today less frequent causes such as gram negative and mycobacteria infections. Impact of postoperative complications is underestimated and lacking an appropriate care and education for local and systemic management., Summary: We report the current evidence on the management of infections after breast surgery. New drugs options for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and other gram positive should have a place in this setting. Stewardship activities aiming at reducing infections risks with the correct considerations of host, microbiological and surgical risk factors.

Purpose of Review: The increase of skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) represents a major concern both in community and in the hospital setting. Staphylococcus aureus is the most frequently isolated pathogen, and the rise in infections due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has been associated with inadequate antibiotic treatment and increased morbidity., Recent Findings: A number of new antimicrobials with activity against drug-resistant Gram-positive pathogens, including MRSA, have been recently approved for the treatment of SSTIs. New lipoglycopeptides, in particular dalbavancin, are long-acting antibiotics with potential for infrequent administration, offering the possibility for outpatient treatment and early hospital discharge., Summary: Dalbavancin is a new lipoglycopeptide showing high activity against Gram-positive bacteria, including drug-resistant strains. Dalbavancin presents a distinctive pharmacokinetic profile with a terminal prolonged half-life of approximately 14 days. This characteristic allows once-weekly dosing interval, avoiding the need for daily dosing and offering an advantage over other compounds for potential use in the outpatient setting or to promote early hospital discharge. Dalbavancin has a favorable adverse effect profile and appears to be a promising new alternative for treatment of SSTIs. We have reviewed the pharmacokinetic properties of dalbavancin and the clinical evidence for its use in complicated SSTIs and other potential applications.

Purpose of Review: Tedizolid is a second-generation oxazolidinone with activity against Gram-positive bacteria, including MRSA isolates resistant to linezolid. Pivotal clinical trials showed that tedizolid at 200 mg once-daily for 6 days is not inferior to linezolid 600 mg twice daily for 10 days in patients with SSTI. The comparison of adverse events is favorable to tedizolid under the circumstances of the clinical trials. This is a review of recent literature on tedizolid, its use in special populations and potential adverse effects., Recent Findings: Findings suggest that tedizolid can be used in SSTI in adolescents, those older than 65 years, obese individuals and patients with diabetic foot infections. Forthcoming research to determine the future uses of this drug in other clinical syndromes requires demonstration of tolerance whenever tedizolid is administered for longer than 6 days.We also speculate on missing data and potential future indications of tedizolid in the highly competitive field of the treatment of severe Gram-positive infections other than SSTI., Summary: Tedizolid is a second-generation oxazolidinone, very convenient for treatment of SSTI, in search for other indications including nosocomial pneumonia and bone and joint infections. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Purpose of Review: Skin and soft-tissue infections (SSIs) are among the commonest infections encountered in clinical practice. Spread of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus SSIs continues to increase in both health care and community settings and presents a challenge for the best treatment choice. Vancomycin has been the mainstay of SSIs treatment, but recently its use has been questioned because of concerns about its efficacy, tolerability, and unfavorable pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic profile. The purpose of this review is to establish the current role for vancomycin in light of the literature published from January 2007 to September 2017 on comparison with both old and new alternatives., Recent Findings: Meta-analyses show better clinical and microbiological outcomes for drugs approved for the treatment of SSI, including those sustained by methicillin-resistant S. aureus, in the last 10 years than for vancomycin. The newer glycopeptides and linezolid decrease the total treatment costs compared with vancomycin, by reducing the length of stay or avoiding the hospitalization., Summary: Vancomycin is noninferior in efficacy and safety to all comparator drugs, including the newest on the market. However, the SSI treatment evidence base presents several shortcomings limiting the clinical applicability of the results. High-level clinical trials should be performed to obtain results that can be generalized and applied effectively in clinical practice.

Purpose of Review: Skin and soft tissue infections prevalence is increasing and represent a frequent cause of hospital admission. New guidelines have become available in order to better define these infections and their response to antimicrobial treatment. Gram-positive bacteria, in particular Staphylococcus aureus, remain the most frequently isolated pathogens in skin and soft tissue infections. To treat complicated forms and infections caused by drug-resistant bacteria, hospital admission and administration of intravenous antibiotics are often required, impacting on healthcare costs and patients' morbidity., Recent Findings: New therapeutic options offer efficacy against drug-resistant Gram-positive bacteria as well as potential to favor early patients' discharge, including the possibility for intravenous to oral switch and infrequent drug administration because of prolonged drug half-life. Although data from real-world studies on new antimicrobials is awaited, clinicians need clear direction on how to optimize the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections in order to avoid prolonged hospitalizations and extra costs. Early assessment of patient's clinical conditions and response to treatment appear useful in order to facilitate patients' discharge., Summary: We have reported the evidence for early intravenous to oral switch and early hospital discharge for patients with skin and soft tissue infections. New therapeutic options that represent promising tools in promoting an optimized management of these infections have also been reviewed.

Purpose of Review: To summarize the current finding on SSTIs/ABSSSIs treatment duration., Recent Findings: In 2013, the FDA approved the definition of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections (ABSSSIs). From a clinical point of view, the new definition may present some advantages: the definition of the severity of the disease, the measurement of reduction in lesion size, and effectiveness of treatment primary endpoint at 48-72 h after treatment initiation. New therapeutic options with improved efficacy, safety, and/or pharmacodynamics are available for ABSSSIs and so far, several questions still need to be addressed for the management of these infections, including treatment duration., Summary: There is a wide variation of duration of antimicrobial treatment in skin and soft tissue infections. Plenty of published data available suggest that we should focus on the early response to shorten duration of treatment, and that the antimicrobial stewardship perspective is extremely helpful in underscoring the need for composite outcomes in clinical practice, as multiple tools are available to increase cost-efficacy, including reduction of treatment changes, early oral switch, early discharge (even from the Emergency Department), outpatient antimicrobial treatment, long-acting antibiotics, and all together, de-escalation treatment strategies.

Purpose of Review: Skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) are among the most frequent infections, contributing to significant morbidity and healthcare costs. Although numerous antibiotics are available for this indication, several medical needs remain unmet, especially for treating methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) or mixed infections. This review summarizes the results achieved in the development of omadacycline, a new aminomethylcycline, which could have useful properties for the treatment of SSTIs., Recent Findings: The antimicrobial activity of omadacycline against the micro-organisms most frequently cultured in SSTIs has been confirmed in worldwide panels of clinical isolates, including MRSA, Gram-negative aerobes and some anaerobes. Pharmacokinetic data demonstrate interesting characteristics, allowing intravenous and oral administration. The Phase 3 OASIS-1 trial assessed the clinical efficacy and safety of omadacycline versus linezolid in SSTIs and demonstrated noninferiority and a good safety profile especially with regard to gastrointestinal effects. Analyses of subgroups of patients from this trial showed similar activity to that of the comparator drug, good safety and no dosage adjustments for age, sex or hepatic or renal impairment., Summary: Because of its microbiological activities and pharmacokinetic profile, omadacycline may be particularly suitable for the treatment of SSTIs, whether managed in hospital or on an outpatient basis.

Purpose of Review: Skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) are the most frequent infectious cause of referrals to emergency departments and hospital admissions in developed world, contributing to significant morbidity and healthcare expenditures. We sought to review recent literature covering epidemiology and management of SSTIs., Recent Findings: Incidence trends of SSTIs were increasing worldwide with Staphylococcus aureus and streptococci predominating and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) posing additional challenges, because of high rates of treatment failure and relapse. Development of new antimicrobials was associated with an appraisal of regulatory definitions and endpoints. Prediction of clinical response can be very tricky, because of variable risk factors for recurrence or treatment failure, depending mostly on the host. Precise indications for new antimicrobials should be established; their integration into clinical practice algorithms may serve reduction of unnecessary admissions, overtreatment and total costs., Summary: New antimicrobials with activity against MRSA have been recently launched. Long-acting agents, mainly oritavancin and dalbavancin, provide the opportunity of single-dose treatment and early discharge. Further outpatient treatment options include new per os antibiotics such as oxazolidinones. Validated assessment tools are urgently needed to support decision-making toward rational resource utilization and delivery of optimal treatment.

Purpose of Review: Skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) are prevalent in the obese population, with rising trend expected. Although numerous antibiotics are available for the prevention and treatment of SSTIs, their characterization in obese patients is not a regulatory mandate. Consequently, information that carries importance for optimizing the dosing regimen in the obese population may not be readily available. This review focuses on the most recent pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data on this topic with attention to cefazolin for surgical prophylaxis as well as antibiotics that are active against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Moreover, the implications for optimizing SSTIs prevention and treatment in the obese population will also be discussed., Recent Findings: On the basis of pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic considerations, most studies found a perioperative prophylactic cefazolin regimen of 2 g to be reasonable in the case of obese patients undergoing cesarean delivery or bariatric surgery. There is general paucity of data regarding the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic characteristics of antimicrobials active against MRSA in obese patients, especially for the target tissue. Therapeutic drug monitoring has been correlated with pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic optimization for vancomycin and teicoplanin, and should be used in these cases. There is more supportive evidence for the use of oxazolidinones (linezolid and tedizolid), daptomycin and lipoglycopeptides (telavancin, dalbavancin and oritavancin) in the management of SSTIs in this population., Summary: The pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic approach, which can be used as a basis or supplement to clinical trials, provides valuable data and decision-making tools for optimizing regimens used for both prevention and treatment of SSTIs in the obese population. Important pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic characteristics of antibiotics, such as the penetration into the subcutaneous tissue and the probability of reaching the pharmacodynamic, target dictate efficacy, and thus should be taken into account and further investigated.

Purpose of Review: This article gives an overview of the practical concept of pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic principles useful for clinicians in the management of skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs)., Recent Findings: Recent studies suggest that distinguishing between bacteriostatic or bactericidal activity when choosing an antimicrobial for the treatment of severe infections could probably be clinically irrelevant. Conversely, what could help clinicians in maximizing the therapeutic efficacy of the various drugs in routine practice is taking care of some pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic principles. Concentration-dependent agents may exhibit more rapid bacterial killing than observed with time-dependent agents. Serum concentrations may not always adequately predict tissue exposure in patients with SSTIs, and measuring concentrations at the infection site is preferable. Hydrophilic antimicrobials showed generally lower penetration rates than the lipophilic ones and might require alternative dosing approaches in the presence of severe sepsis or septic shock. Conversely, tissue penetration of lipophilic antimicrobials is often unaffected by the pathophysiological status. Real-time therapeutic drug monitoring may be a very helpful tool for optimizing therapy of severe infections., Summary: Taking care of pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic principles deriving from the most recent findings may help clinicians in maximizing treatment of SSTIs with antimicrobials in every situation.

Purpose of Review: The occurrence of methicillin-resistance in Staphylococcus aureus, that represents the most frequent cause of complicated skin and soft tissue infections (cSSTIs) worldwide, is a major concern and has been associated with increased length of stay, health care costs, and overall mortality. Although vancomycin is still considered the standard therapy in this setting, limitations of its use in clinical practice are represented by a progressive increase in methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) minimum inhibitory concentrations, drug-related toxicity, and the lack of an oral formulation. New therapeutic options for MRSA cSSTIs have recently become available, with promising implications for the management of cSSTIs in clinical practice., Recent Findings: A number of new antimicrobials with activity against MRSA have been recently approved for the treatment of cSSTIs, and other agents are under investigation. We have reviewed the recent developments, with a specific focus on the possible advantages of new drugs for the management of cSSTIs into the everyday clinical practice., Summary: The new approved drugs for the treatment of cSSTIs are expected to offer many advantages for the management of patients with suspected or confirmed MRSA cSSTIs. The most promising features of the new compounds include the availability of oral formulations, once-weekly intravenous regimens, and broad spectra of activity.

Purpose of Review: A number of novel antibiotics in different classes have been registered and licensed in recent years for complicated skin and soft tissue infections or acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections. Many of these have activity against resistant gram-positive bacteria (linezolid, daptomycin, oritavancin, dalbavancin and tedizolid). In addition, two have gram-negative activity (ceftaroline and tigecycline). The licence for the clinical use of these agents is very narrow, but the clinical need is much broader. This is a personal opinion of the prospective clinical roles for these novel antibiotics., Recent Findings: All were found to be noninferior to standard comparators in registration trials. There are few data on their use in other clinical conditions outside the narrow confines of the registration trials. 'Off-label' use is likely to be more common than the licensed use, and data need to be collected on clinical and microbiological efficacy and adverse effects in real life., Summary: There is now a wide range of antibiotics for treating complicated skin and soft tissue infections or acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections, and they all have a role in different clinical scenarios. Use in nonlicensed situations needs to be assessed.

Purpose of Review: Acute bacterial skin and skin structure infection (ABSSSI) is a common and significant indication for antibiotic treatment. The microbial aetiology is becoming more resistant to available antibiotics and the treatment of patients is additionally challenged by extremes of age, obesity, diabetes and other co-morbidities. This review examines recent antimicrobial developments., Recent Findings: In many parts of the world, multidrug-resistant (MDR) staphylococci are the predominant cause of ABSSSI in both the community and in hospital. Increasing resistance in Gram-negative organisms presents problems in the management of surgical-site infections. Most new antibiotics have been developed to treat MDR Gram-positive bacteria and there are few agents to treat infections caused by MDR Gram-negative pathogens., Summary: A number of novel agents are available clinically, with other agents of related chemical structure under development. There are no entirely new classes of antibiotics. Maintaining the efficacy of antimicrobial treatment require effective antibiotic stewardship, good infection prevention and the development of further new antibiotics.

Purpose of Review: Skin and soft tissues infections (SSTIs) caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are underrecognized and difficult to treat. Controversies exist for optimal medical management and the role of surgery. Defining the epidemiology in the environment, in animals and in healthcare aids disease prevention. This review focuses on recent advances in epidemiology, risk factors, diagnostics and therapy., Recent Findings: The increasing consumer appetite for cosmetic and body-modifying procedures (e.g. tattooing, mesotherapy, liposuction) has been associated with rises in sporadic cases and outbreaks of NTM SSTIs. In mainstream healthcare, recent epidemiological studies have helped to quantify the increased risk of NTM infection related to anti-tumour necrosis factor-α monoclonal antibody therapy. Cervicofacial lymphadenitis in children poses management dilemmas, but recent studies and resultant algorithms have simplified decision-making. Molecular studies have led to a better understanding of the epidemiology, therapy and course of Mycobacterium ulcerans infection (Buruli ulcer) that remains prevalent in many areas including sub-Saharan Africa and southeastern Australia. Apart from molecular methods, the widespread adoption of matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry by routine laboratories has potential to simplify and expedite the laboratory identification of NTMs., Summary: An improved understanding of the epidemiology of NTM SSTIs indicates a need to apply effective infection control and ensure regulation of cosmetic and related procedures associated with nonsterile fluids. Broader access to newer diagnostic methods will continue to improve recognition of NTM disease. Along with a paucity of therapeutic agents, there is need for more reliable methods to assess susceptibility and selection of effective combination therapy.

Purpose of Review: Despite concerns regarding efficacy and tolerability, vancomycin continues to be the standard treatment for skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) when β-lactam antimicrobials cannot be used. This review sought to establish the role of both old and new alternatives to vancomycin. Methods for achieving optimization of vancomycin therapy are also explored., Recent Findings: Several meta-analyses have demonstrated poorer clinical outcomes when the vancomycin minimum inhibitory concentration approaches the breakpoint of 2 μg/ml. Higher doses should be utilized to optimize pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics when higher volumes of distribution occur (e.g. sepsis). Newer agents with established noninferiority to vancomycin include the oxazolidinones linezolid and tedizolid, the lipopeptide daptomycin, the anti-meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus cephalosporin ceftaroline and the glycylcycline tigecycline. Linezolid is thus far the only agent that has been shown to be associated with better clinical and microbiological cure rates. Ceftaroline and tigecycline are broad-spectrum agents best reserved for polymicrobial infections (e.g. diabetic foot infections)., Summary: When vancomycin is used for the treatment of SSTIs, maximizing the dose should be performed to improve efficacy. Cost is often the main limiting factor with regard to the newer agents, but their suitability for outpatient antimicrobial therapy may counteract this.

Purpose of Review: Wound infection has always been an unconquered problem temporarily improved with the discovery of antibiotics but now struggling with an epidemic of resistant organisms. Wound healing has become a popular sub-speciality for the doctor and allied health professional working in the laboratory or at the bedside. It is a field with many new journals and frequent congresses that publish elaborate proceedings. These have been examined for this review., Recent Findings: Measurement of infection remains elusive. A clear difference between contamination and infection is difficult to delineate. In the era of the HIV/AIDS epidemic attention is drawn to host factors, which when attended to are as effective in suppressing infection as antisepsis. The bacterial capacity to put on a protective coat known as biofilm is a newly investigated system., Summary: Antisepsis and antibiotics continue to provide a wealth of studies and some new technology. The evidence base, as examined by Cochrane systematic reviews, suggests that our strategy for preventing and dealing with infection of wounds needs further refinement.