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• An unequal grouping algorithm is introduced in this work to address the energy-hole problem in Internet-of-things (IoT) and wireless sensor networks (WSNs). • The work introduced an energy level-based group head selection model that considers multi-objective parameters such as hop count, energy, and packet loss ratio. • An energy and delay aware routing optimization mechanism is introduced to reduce delay and minimize energy consumption. • Finally, a multipath-based route is established, and effective load balancing is done for transmitting packets with QoS (quality of service) and without QoS. • The existing methods' performance is generally studied considering total node death; however, the EDAR model is studied considering different scenarios such as first node death and total node death. • The simulation results show the EDAR is very efficient in reducing communication overhead, delay, enhanced lifetime, and improved throughput in comparison with the recent state-of-art routing mechanisms such as low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH), unequal clustering algorithm (UCA), and reliable and energy efficient routing (REER). The adoption of modern technology into farming has seen significant expansion to enhance the quality and quantity of crop production. In this research work, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and the Internet of Things (IoTs) are integrated to provide a real-time crop monitoring system to farmers. Usually, battery-powered IoT devices equipped with sensors like temperature, humidity, motion sensors, etc. are placed across agriculture areas for real-time monitoring of crops and cattle. In improving energy efficiency and reducing delay clustering multi-hop routing has been used with good effect; However, the existing methods failed to enhance network lifetime and target coverage due to failure in addressing load-balancing and hotspot problems. In addressing research problems this paper presents an Energy and Delay Aware Routing (EDAR) scheme for heterogenous WSN-IoTs leveraging unequal grouping of networks and adoption of multipath routing for provisioning IoT applications. The simulation outcome shows the EDAR model achieves very good performance in terms of throughput and lifetime performance with minimal delay and communication overhead. Graphical abstract of energy and delay aware routing design. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) are pivotal for real-time monitoring in diverse sectors through the Internet of Things (IoT). However, current wireless communication protocols face challenges in integrating Precision Agriculture (PA) management systems with Artificial Intelligence (AI). PA optimizes nutrient supply and pesticide use, enhancing crop yield and product quality. Despite these advantages, structural changes in WSNs, including deployment, coverage, scalability, and energy consumption, hinder their potential. This paper conducts a comparative study of WSNs in agriculture, focusing on wireless protocols, energy harvesting, and efficiency procedures. The research delves into challenges faced by WSNs in agriculture, emphasizing the need for power-saving agricultural management strategies to ensure sustained, effective long-term monitoring. The study addresses integration issues, explores agricultural benefits, and proposes solutions to enhance WSN performance in dynamic field environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]