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Samples of longhorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus octodecemspinosus) were exposed to sediment contaminated with crude oil or pulp and paper mill effluent for periods up to 13 months in the laboratory. Other samples were collected at sites where crude oil or effluent from a pulp and paper mill are discharged. The intensity of gill infections of Trichodina spp. on exposed fish was significantly higher than on controls 5, 9, and 13 months after exposure. The intensity of the ciliates was also greater on sculpins collected near an oil-receiving terminal than on those sampled 5 km from the polluted site. Field collections of longhorn and shorthorn (Myoxocephalus scorpius) sculpins at and distant from a pulp and paper mill had high and low intensities of the ciliates, respectively. Similarly, the intensity of trichodinid ciliates was also significantly greater in longhorn sculpins exposed to effluent-contaminated sediment than in controls 5 months after exposure. The results suggest that the intensity of gill-inhibiting species such as trichodinids in susceptible fish hosts increases after chronic exposure to crude oil and to pulp and paper mill effluent, and the parasites may serve as indicators of pollution.

We conducted extensive field observations (369.6 h) and surveys of 36 preworker, multiple-foundress colonies of the social wasp Polistes fuscatus. We observed 48 intrusions by foreign conspecifics in 18 of 36 colonies. The rates of intrusion by foreign females, about 1 intrusion per colony each day, did not differ among observations conducted approximately 22, 39, and 48 days after nest initiation. Thus, it appears that usurpation pressure is both intense and constant throughout the preworker stage of the colony cycle. None of the observed intrusions resulted in the replacement of resident foundresses, although surveys revealed that 2 of 36 multiple-foundress colonies were usurped. All 48 intrusions were by females that were unlikely to be closely related to the colonies they attempted to usurp. Resident foundresses exhibited highly intolerant behaviour toward intruders, and evicted them within 40 s of their landing on the nest. There was a pronounced division of labour between queens and subordinates in colony defence. When present together on the nest, queens were significantly more involved than their subordinates in repelling intruders. The vast majority of intruder evictions did not involve cooperation or joint effort by cofoundresses. Therefore, the ability of multiple foundresses to successfully defend against usurpation is probably due to the decreased probability that their nest is left unattended.

Bombus moderatus Cresson, 1863 occurs in the northern and western regions of North America and reaches its southern limit in Alberta. In 1915, the southernmost record was Banff; by 1987, it had appeared in Kananaskis Country, 40 km southeast of Banff, and by 2010, it had spread 80 km farther east to become one of the more common bumble bee species in Calgary, where it had never been previously recorded. This represents a rate of spread over the last 20 years of about 4 km/year. The simplest hypothesis that can account for this change is that it is just a continuation of the natural expansion of its range since the end of the last ice age. An alternative hypothesis is that it is filling the niche vacated as a result of the decline in another species, Bombus occidentalis Greene, 1858.

Videotaped observations (371.3 h) were conducted in 1995, 1996, and 1997 on 50 multiple-foundress colonies of the social wasp Polistes fuscatus. Observations were made during the mid-preworker, late-preworker, and early-postworker stages of the colony cycle. The vast majority of lost subordinate cofoundresses (62 of 77) disappeared during the time interval from 2 weeks before to 4 weeks after the emergence of the first workers. The loss of subordinates did not appear to be the result of senescence or foraging-related mortality. Lost subordinates were from productive and presumably healthy colonies. In colonies containing two or more subordinates, lost subordinates had significantly greater dominance ranks than expected. There was no behavioural evidence that lost subordinates were evicted from their colony by queens, other subordinate foundresses, or workers. Lost subordinates were not observed to renest, join sister colonies, or adopt orphaned nests. Our results indicate that lost subordinates leave colonies of their own volition. Indirect evidence from other studies suggests that subordinates may disperse and usurp colonies from other sites.

Seventeen species of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera showed chemical differences by the method of paper chromatography in an evaluation of the method for taxonomic purposes. The analyses were complicated by pattern differences evident in larval, pupal, and adult stages of some species. Geographic isolates of Malacosoma disstria Hbn. as well as of Chamaepsila rosae (F.) and physiological entities within Pristiphora erichsonii (Htg.) show identical patterns; however, differences are found at specific levels. Paper chromatography is therefore a valuable taxonomic tool, especially as the technique is capable of considerable refinement.

Despite their temperate to subarctic geographic range, American martens (Martes americana) possess a thermally inefficient morphology. The lack of morphological adaptations for reducing thermal costs suggests that marten may use behavioral strategies to optimize thermal budgets. During the winters of 1989–1990 and 1990–1991, we radio-collared and monitored the diel activity of 7 martens. A log-linear model suggested that the presence or absence of light was the only factor associated with marten activity patterns (p

Reproducible live wet weights may be obtained for medium to large larvae of Metriocnemus knabi and Chironomus attenuatus after blotting them on filter paper for 1 min. To obtain reliable measures of wet weight for smaller larvae the blotting time must be reduced in proportion to the surface area/volume ratio of the larvae. Dry weights are easily obtained by oven drying at 60 °C for 24 h but drying for several days does not affect the results. A temperature of 100 °C decreases die percentage dry matter in C. attenuatus. Both species display an increase in percentage dry matter with increasing size. The extent to which the gut is filled with food has no effect on the percentage dry matter. Attempts to determine dry weight directly from preserved larvae were unsuccessful.

Hemolymph was collected from recently fed desert locusts either by adsorption onto filter paper, or by centrifugation and methanol extraction. Whole hemolymph caused both the short-circuit current (Isc) and open-circuit transepithelial electropotential difference (PD) across locust recta mounted in Ussing-type chambers to double during the steady-state period. Methanol extracts of hemolymph caused similar but smaller increases in Isc. The transepithelial resistance (R) did not change. Simultaneous measurements of 36Cl− fluxes indicated that all of the increase in Isc following stimulation could be accounted for by a parallel increase in net Cl− absorption from the lumen side. With the exception of an initial small biphasic fluctuation in Isc, stimulation by hemolymph exhibited identical characteristics to those produced by submaximal dosages of corpora cardiaca (CC). Cardiatectomy drastically reduced the stimulatory activity of hemolymph, suggesting that this neuroendocrine organ is the source of the active factor (chloride transport stimulating hormone (CTSH)) in hemolymph.

Nineteen free amino acids and four ninhydrin-positive compounds were detected in the haemolymph of fifth-instar nymphs of Rhodnius prolixus by the technique of thin-layer chromatography. On the sixth day after feeding, tyrosine and tryptophan appeared in the haemolymph. Their concentration increased until the 12th day when testing stopped. The concentrations of alanine, asparagine, cystine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, and threonine fluctuated moderately from day to day. The results obtained by thin-layer chromatography differed from those of a similar study in which the technique of paper chromatography was used.

An extract of each of Aedes aegypti (L.), A. atropalpus (Coq.), and Culex pipiens (L.) was shown by paper chromatography to contain 12 ninhydrin-staining peptides. None of these peptides from the A. aegypti extract was capable of eliciting skin reactions in a volunteer sensitive to A. aegypti bites. A reaction equivalent to that caused by a mosquito bite was produced by an estimated 10−3 g of dialyzed A. aegypti extract from which the ninhydrin-staining peptides had been removed. Of the solvents tested in attempting to fractionate this active material, the most suitable was 65% acetone. By this means, A. aegypti extract was shown to contain at least four fractions capable of producing skin reactions in volunteers sensitive to A. aegypti bites.

Freshly caught intermolt lobsters show a highly significant elevation of blood glucose after a few minutes of mild stress. Females show a significantly greater increase than males. The small amounts of other sugars in the blood are great enough to explain the increase in glucose, and chromatographic analysis shows that they diminish under stress. In postmolt animals the stress hyperglycaemia is not as great but is still significant; the difference between the sexes is not apparent. Lobsters held in commercial pounds were found to be in a hyperglycaemic condition. The stress of commercial handling and prolonged fasting brings about significant changes in blood sugars and the sexes react differently. The rather better survival of females under these conditions may also be significant.

Managing predators to restore threatened or endangered species is often controversial. Hervieux et al. (2014; Can. J. Zool. 92(12): 1029–1037) report on the efficacy of wolf (Canis lupus L., 1758) reduction as a recovery strategy in the Little Smoky population of boreal woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou (Gmelin, 1788)) range in Alberta, which generated a lot of media attention. As such, the authors were invited by the journal editor who handled the original paper to write this addendum to provide clarification regarding the methodology used in the original paper. Wolf reduction was conducted by Government personnel in accordance with appropriate policy and laws (i.e., federal and provincial Species at Risk Acts; Alberta Wildlife Act; Alberta Woodland Caribou Policy). University-based researchers were involved only in data analysis and writing, and thus did not require approval by a university-based animal welfare board. Collaboration between independent university-based scientists and government biologists is essential to effective assessment of such controversial management practices. Hervieux et al. (2014; Can. J. Zool. 92(12): 1029–1037) in fact concluded that such wolf reductions, by themselves, would only “buy time” and would not restore woodland caribou alone without effective habitat protection.

Few studies have addressed whether terrestrial insects assess predation risk via chemical cues. We exposed predator-naïve fall field crickets ( Gryllus pennsylvanicus Burmeister, 1838) to filter paper containing the chemical cues of three wolf spiders ( Hogna helluo (Walckenaer, 1837), Rabidosa rabida (Walckenaer, 1837), Rabidosa punctulata (Hentz, 1844)), the house cricket ( Acheta domesticus L., 1758,) and blank filter paper. Crickets exhibited greater immobility and reduced speed of movement when exposed to chemical cues of all three spider species. Crickets exhibited reduced speed with increasing mass of R. punctulata, suggesting that larger spiders may pose a greater risk. Cricket response did not differ between cues of H. helluo fed conspecific crickets versus H. helluo fed house crickets, suggesting that crickets cannot distinguish between cues from H. helluo fed phylogenetically similar crickets. Our work nevertheless demonstrates that naïve field crickets respond to chemical cues of several species of wolf spiders.

In prairie voles, Microtus ochrogaster (Wagner, 1842), the onset of parental caring differs by sex and reproductive condition. Maternal caring is displayed abruptly at parturition, whereas paternal caring intensifies gradually during the reproductive period. To determine if changes in odor responsiveness contribute to sex differences in onset of parental behavior, voles were given a choice to investigate various odors at different times during the reproductive cycle. Subjects were either sexually naïve or mated. Mated pairs cohabited until mid-gestation, late gestation, or 3 days postpartum. Voles crossed a tunnel to explore a row of three filter papers covered with infant odor, orange extract, or saline. Males and females exhibited different odor preferences. Males preferred infant odor to saline and orange extract, whereas females preferred infant odor and saline to orange extract. Mating changed the odor investigative behaviors in both males and females. Some voles vigorously manipulated odor-covered papers. The number of females manipulating the papers increased abruptly at late gestation. The number of males manipulating the papers was particularly high at mid-gestation and after the birth of young. Results suggest that mating and cohabitation in prairie voles influences odor responses in a sex-specific manner.

The comment by Romero and Kannada is presented as a critique of our previous work and suggests that our conclusions are in direct conflict with the historic whaling information reviewed in their paper. However, the critique is based on a misinterpretation of the geographical, temporal, and taxonomic focus of our previous work. The source of the putative conflict appears to stem from the misinterpretation that our results, focused solely on the impact of Basque whaling in the 16th and 17th centuries on the western North Atlantic right whale, were intended to be representative of all whaling of both right and bowhead whales throughout the North Atlantic. To demonstrate this, we briefly review our original results and conclusions and show that the information reviewed by Romero and Kannada does not challenge any aspect of our original work. As such, their comment is not a critique of our paper, but rather a brief review of the history of whaling in the North Atlantic.

With 210 genera and 2010 species, Cyprinidae is the largest freshwater fish family in the world. Several papers, based on morphological and molecular data, have been published and have led to some solid conclusions, such as the close relationships between North American phoxinins and European leuciscins. However, the relationships among major subgroups of this family are still not well resolved, especially for those East Asian groups. In the present paper, the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region, 896–956 base pairs, of 17 representative species of East Asian cyprinids was sequenced and compared with those of 21 other cyprinids to study their phylogenetic relationships. After alignment, there were 1051 sites. The comparison between pairwise substitutions and HKY distances showed that the mtDNA control region was suitable for phylogenetic study. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that there are two principal lineages in Cyprinidae: Cyprinine and Leuciscine. In Cyprinine, the relationships could be a basal Labeoinae, an intermediate Cyprininae, and a diversified Barbinae (including Schizothroaxinae). In Leuciscine, Rasborinae is at the basal position; Gobioninae and Leuciscinae are sister groups; the East Asian cultrin–xenocyprinin taxa form a large mono phyl etic group with some small affiliated groups; and the positions of Acheilognathinae and Tincinae are still uncertain.

The fossil record of the Echinodermata is relatively complete, and is represented by specimens retaining an abundance of features comparable to that found in extant forms. This yields a half-billion-year record of evolutionary novelties unmatched in any other major group, making the Echinodermata a primary target for studies of biological change. Not all of this change can be understood by studying the rocks alone, leading to synthetic research programs. Study of literature from the past 20 years indicates that over 1400 papers on echinoderm paleontology appeared in that time, and that overall productivity has remained almost constant. Analysis of papers appearing since 1990 shows that research is driven by new finds including, but not restricted to, possible Precambrian echinoderms, bizarre new edrioasteroids, early crinoids, exquisitely preserved homalozoans, echinoids at the K-T boundary, and Antarctic echinoids, stelleroids, and crinoids. New interpretations of echinoderm body wall homologies, broad-scale syntheses of embryological information, the study of developmental trajectories through molecular markers, and the large-scale ecological and phenotypic shifts being explored through morphometry and analyses of large data sets are integrated with study of the fossils themselves. Therefore, recent advances reveal a remarkable and continuing synergistic expansion in our understanding of echinoderm evolutionary history.

Olfaction is the principal sensory modality through which insects locate their food sources, mates, and oviposition sites. Insects offer certain advantages as experimental models for the study of mechanisms of olfaction, and a thorough knowledge of the antennal olfactory sensory cells is essential for such studies. While the sphinx moth, Manduca sexta, has proved to be an especially favorable experimental model in studies of pheromone processing in males, little is known about the female olfactory system, including the antennal olfactory sensilla. In this and another paper in this series, we present the first thorough investigation of the structure, innervation, number, and distribution of sensilla on the antennal flagellum of female M. sexta. The flagellum of the female moth bears eight morphological types of sensilla: two trichoid, two basiconic, one auriculate, two coeloconic, and one styliform complex. In this paper, we describe the two types of trichoid and two types of basiconic sensilla. The first type of trichoid sensillum, a long hairlike sensillum averaging 34 µm in length, is innervated by two bipolar sensory cells, and the second type, a shorter hairlike sensillum averaging 26 µm in length, is innervated by either one or three bipolar sensory cells. The first type of basiconic sensillum is a long peg, averaging 22 µm in length, and the second is a shorter peg, averaging 15 µm in length. Both types of basiconic sensilla are innervated by three bipolar sensory cells. These trichoid and basiconic sensilla have structural features characteristic of insect olfactory sensilla.

The comment of Dalby and Elliott was triggered by a statement we made in a research note to the effect that our study provided the first experimental evidence of predator-classification abilities in cnidarians. Based on an extensive literature search and the appreciation of our manuscript by the reviewers, at the time of publication we believed that this statement was correct. After reviewing the research articles highlighted by Dalby and Elliott, we concur that the statement is incorrect. We discuss some possible reasons why the articles cited by the authors were not found during our literature search, including the use of technical "jargon". In formulating their comment, the authors make several incorrect assumptions, including (i) that our literature search was limited to a single broad review paper and (ii) that we overlooked key information in at least two of the papers we cited. Also, the authors appear to confound predator recognition and predator classification, as some of the articles they cite do not examine predator-classification abilities. Finally, they give the impression that predator-classification abilities are ubiquitous in cnidarians. This appears to be an overstatement, since a number of published studies clearly indicate high variability in the ability of cnidarians to (i) recognize predators and (ii) respond "correctly" according to the relative threat they represent.

This is the fifth and final paper in a series treating the Simuliidae of Sri Lanka, and it contains a checklist of the species in the country. In this paper are described three new species of Simulium (Simulium): all stages of Simulium subpalmatum and Simulium cruszi (except the larva) and the male and pupa of Simulium paranubis. The female, male, and pupa of Simulium (Simulium) consimile and S. (S.) striatum are redescribed and the larva of S. (S.) consimile is described for the first time. Taxonomic comparisons are made with related species and keys are provided to separate the eight Sri Lankan species in the subgenus.

The comment by Messier and Joly on a paper by Eberhardt (L.L. Eberhardt. 1997. Can. J. Zool. 75: 1940-1944) suggests that the data in the earlier paper do not demonstrate a regulatory effect of wolves (Canis lupus) on their ungulate prey. It appears that the disagreement results from the use of quite different models, with Messier's approach (F. Messier. 1994. Ecology, 75: 478-488) apparently depending on the assumption of an equilibrium between wolf abundance and prey abundance, while Eberhardt's model depicts non-equilibrium conditions. Some questions having to do with duplications in secondary data sources are further examined.

Recent cladistic phylogenies of the Platyhelminthes, especially the parasitic species, use for synapomorphies several characters of the spermatozoa, together with other characters. This paper reinvestigates synapomorphies based on sperm characteristics. The outgroup usually chosen for such studies on the parasitic Platyhelminthes (Cercomeria) is the "Dalyelliida" or "Dalyellioida," generally considered a paraphyletic group, but sperm structure in this group shows great variation. In this paper, the Typhloplanoida, which have a plesiomorphic structure (two free axonemes), are considered the outgroup. One of the synapomorphies recently proposed for the Neodermata is "spermatozoon with axonemes incorporated in the cytoplasm." This definition introduces convergences with several other groups of nonparasitic Platyhelminthes. A more precise definition of spermiogenesis, based on a detailed description, is proposed in this paper and avoids homoplasies: "proximodistal fusion of the axonemes." This implies the presence of dorsal and ventral microtubules in the nuclear region of the spermatozoon. This synapomorphy characterizes the Cercomeridea but not the Neodermata (= Udonellidea + Cercomeridea). The character "absence of dense granules in the spermatozoon" should be considered a synapomorphy for the Neodermata and has almost no homoplasies. For the Temnocephalidea, the spiral pattern of the peripheral microtubule row is proposed as a synapomorphy. This character is present in Didymorchis; however, Didymorchis lacks tentacles, which are present in the other genera, and thus the ultrastructural synapomorphy is in conflict with a recently proposed morphological synapomorphy for this group: the presence of tentacles. No synapomorphy of the spermatozoon can be proposed for the Monogenea, but the presence of lateral microtubules lining the axonemes is proposed as a synapomorphy for the polyopisthocotylean Monogenea, and the absence of dorsal and lateral microtubules is proposed as a synapomorphy for the monopisthocotylean Monogenea (this is a reversal of the synapomorphy for the Cercomeridea defined above). The cyclophyllidean Eucestoda show a twisting of the peripheral microtubules of the spermatozoon, which is proposed as a synapomorphy.

Two papers published recently in this journal have examined the relationship between patterns of activity and patterns of body temperature in free-ranging beavers in winter (D.W. Smith, R.O. Peterson, T.D. Drummer, and D.S. Sheputis, 1991. Can. J. Zool. 69: 2178–2182; and A. P. Dyck and R.A. MacArthur, 1992. Can. J. Zool. 70: 1668–1672). I argue that both papers missed their objective, owing to the use of procedures that were inadequate to detect and (or) characterize behavioral or physiological rhythms that were free-running with periods ≠ 24 h.

Notes 2300 Isotopic biogeochemistry of ancient bon collagen is a powerful tool for determining the diet of extinct species. It has been increasingly widely used during the last few years (e.g., Bocherens et al. 1994; Matheus 1995; Grocke and Bocherens 1996). This seemingly simple approach is nonetheless useful only when basic requirements are fulfilled. It appears that Hilderbrand et al. (1996), in their study of extinct cave bear diet using collagen carbonand nitrogenstable isotopes, have left unanswered several key points, which precludes valid conclusions, first by misquoting previous work and second by publishing data that are not interpretable as they stand in the paper. The first point is the misquotation of the conclusions of Bocherens et al. (1994) concerning the cave bear diet. Indeed, Hilderbrand et al. (1996) leave the impression that the interpretation of isotopic-analysis results obtained by Bocherens et al. (1994) is incorrect and that the results presented in that paper, combined with their isotopic-analysis results, indicate an omnivorous diet with a significant meat component for extinct European cave bears. In Bocherens et al. (1994), one key result is that in bears, modern and fossil, isotopic values measured on dentine and bone are not at all equivalent from a palaeodietary point of view. In mammals with brachyodont teeth, dentine collagen reflects a milk diet and thus a higher trophic level than that of the adult. Thus, isotopic-analysis results from such dentine will indicate carnivory, even in species where adults are plant eaters. A crucial consequence is that only adult bone collagen can be used as reflecting adult diet. The discussion in Hilderbrand et al. (1996) mixes all values, from dentine and bone, without taking this point into account. Thus, concluding that the values published in Bocherens et al. (1994) indicate omnivory in cave bears is clearly incorrect. A second point is the fact that the approach used by Hilderbrand et al. (1996) presented several flaws in sampling and assessing the validity of the isotopic measurements, which makes the interpretation of these results highly problematical. From the “sample collection” section of that paper, it appears that Pleistocene samples come from numerous different sites whose age is not known and that are spread all over Europe. It is well known that isotopic signatures are strongly influenced by environmental factors, such as aridity, soil acidity, canopy effect, and season of growth (e.g., Heaton et al. 1986; Ambrose 1991; van der Merwe and Medina 1991; van Klinken et al. 1994; Rodiere et al. 1996). These effects lead to a very large range of isotopic values for a given species when individuals come from different places and different times (e.g., Fizet et al. 1995; Bocherens et al. 1997). An illustration of this high variability can be given by comparing the nitrogen-isotope compositions of large bovine species (Bos and Bison) in three western European upper Pleistocene sites in Belgium (Sclayn: δ15N = 4.7 ± 0.4‰; Bocherens et al. 1997), France (Marillac: δ15N = 6.7 ± 0.9‰; Fizet et al. 1995), and Italy (Paglicci: δ15N = 7.9 ± 1.4‰; Iacumin et al. 1997). It is thus clear that the data presented in Hilderbrand et al. (1996) cannot be interpreted in a palaeodietary perspective, because exact geographical and time origins are not provided in the paper. Also, the lack of individual age indication for the bear samples in Hilderbrand et al. (1996) makes it possible that high δ15N values are due to young age and suckling. Another problem with the isotopic-analysis data from Hilderbrand et al. (1996) is the total absence of information on ancient collagen integrity. It is well known that collagen is altered in ancient bones, and only when chemical purity is assessed can isotope-analysis results be considered with confidence to reflect biogenic signatures (DeNiro 1985; Ambrose 1990; Bocherens 1997). Classical ways of checking collagen purity are to use yield of extraction, %C, %N, and C/N ratio of extracted collagen, and in some cases amino acid analyses. None of these data are provided in Hilderbrand et al. (1996), which precludes any serious interpretation of the presented isotope-analysis results. Finally, so far as the isotopic-analysis data on cave bears presented in Hilderbrand et al. (1996) are concerned, valuable palaeodietary information might be obtained if (i) collagen indegeneity was assessed according to the chemical criteria mentioned above, (ii) time and geographical origins were provided for all samples, (iii) comparisons were made only among herbivores, carnivores, and bears from the same site and the same time period, and (iv) only isotopic-analysis values from adult bone collagen were considered.

Managers and policymakers in eastern Canada embrace science-based management of nonindigenous species and may benefit from having comprehensive regional species checklists at subnational jurisdictional levels. In this paper, regional checklists provide an account of the richness of ascidians in eastern Canada. Records of 58 ascidians resulted from reviewing 108 published sources, accessing data from two online databases, and collecting some common indigenous ascidian specimens. Analysis comparing the similarity of species among nine regions indicates that there is greater similarity in species composition between contiguous regions than between noncontiguous regions and suggests that there are four zoogeographic clusters in eastern Canada. Our checklists can inform managers and policymakers of the diversity of the ascidian taxa and can minimize taxonomic uncertainties of established nonindigenous and prospective invading species, for example, by identifying indigenous species that are congeners of nonindigenous species. The maintenance of checklists can be a valuable tool for the management of nonindigenous species as baselines to estimate changes in richness and to document the invasion status of nonindigenous species over time. For example, more importance can be placed on the spread of nonindigenous ascidians from one zoogeographic cluster to another than spread within the same cluster.

Nudibranch molluscs of the genus Dendronotus Alder and Hancock, 1845 are widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere. Taxonomic studies on the genus Dendronotus have been problematic due to high variability in the colour pattern of many species, as well as in the external morphology and anatomy. In the present paper, we studied specimens of Dendronotus from northern Pacific presumably belonging to the species Dendronotus albus MacFarland, 1966 (white frond-aeolis). Molecular and morphological data revealed the existence of two distinct species among the material examined: D. albus, which has a wide range from Kamchatka and the Kurile Islands (from where we report this species for the first time) to California in North America, and the pseudocryptic species Dendronotus diversicolor Robilliard, 1970 (multicolor frond-aeolis), which has been previously considered a junior synonym of D. albus. Dendronotus diversicolor occurs from California, USA, to British Columbia, Canada, in sympatry with D. albus. Dendronotus albus and D. diversicolor can be clearly distinguished by colour pattern, internal and external morphology, and molecular sequence data. Despite some similarities in radular and external morphology between D. albus and D. diversicolor, these two species are phylogenetically distant and belong to different clades within the genus Dendronotus, which suggests convergent evolution.

Choice chamber preference tests were used to determine if camel crickets, Ceuthophilus secretus, use pheromones in forming aggregations. Insects occurred significantly more often on choice chamber sides having filter paper scented by exposure to conspecifics than they did on unconditioned filter paper. Insects also formed aggregations significantly more quickly when exposed to conspecifics as opposed to nonconspecific scents in the choice chambers. These data demonstrate that C. secretus use an aggregation pheromone. Insects occurred significantly more often on sides conditioned with ether extracts of whole insect bodies as opposed to unconditioned sides. Insects also occurred significantly more often on filter paper conditioned with abdomen extracts as opposed to unconditioned filter paper, but no preference was shown for extracts from the head and thorax region. These data demonstrate that the abdomen is the generalized site of aggregation pheromone production. Insects which had both antennae removed were unable to form aggregations in response to conspecific scent, thus indicating that the antennae are the site of aggregation pheromone reception.

The parasitoid Aphidius nigripes spent more time searching on potato plants previously infested with aphids than on fresh plants, suggesting the presence of searching stimulants on infested plants. Water extracts of aphid honeydew applied to the surface of foliage or to filter paper discs increased searching time and affected the locomotory behavior of parasitoids. When crossing a honeydew-treated area on filter paper, female parasitoids exhibited arrestment, antennal examination, abdominal protraction, reduced walking speed, and increased turning. Upon losing contact with honeydew-contaminated substrate, parasitoids often exhibited a klinotactic response which drove them back to the treated area. The time spent by individual parasitoids within a honeydew-treated area on filter paper decreased with successive visits, but the initial response level was restored when the insect was prevented from contacting honeydew for 1 h. The retention response exhibited by parasitoids contacting a honeydew-treated area increased with honeydew concentration, but levelled off at high concentrations. Naive parasitoids were more responsive to the retention effect of honeydew than experienced individuals.

The size at which crustaceans become mature can be a useful gauge in the study of environmental effects on field populations. The use of probability paper in rigorously defining the mean size at onset of sexual maturity avoids some of the confusion inherent in other methods of assessing size at maturity and permits an objective comparison of differences between discrete populations. Both logical and mathematical considerations in the use of probability paper for analyzing field data have been treated; and some sample data reveal how one might detect environmental effects on population structure. In this case the data indicated that mole crabs (Emerita analoga) may have grown at different rates in proximate populations.

The centipedes of Canada and Alaska are poorly known. This paper indicates the present state of knowledge of the class, including "economic" and "biological" aspects, insofar as this is relevant to Canada and the adjacent United States of America. The systematic and other related literature applicable to the region is briefly reviewed. The principal part of the paper provides a classified list of the species of centipedes (with most of their synonyms) hitherto known for Canada and Alaska. In order to alert workers as to possible future additions to the Canadian fauna, those species known from other adjacent United States, southern New England, and Oregon are added. The known distribution of each species is given by province, territory, or state within the region, but known distributions further afield are not generally indicated. About 70 species (over a dozen of them introduced) are known for Canada and Alaska. Some 70 or so are found in the adjacent United States or southern New England. It is estimated that the Canadian–Alaskan fauna may eventually prove to comprise more than 100 species of Chilopoda. A note on Canadian Symphyla (including the record of a member of a hitherto unreported family) is appended.

This paper complements a similar one in this issue for the Centipedes (Chilopoda) and Symphyla. The diplopod fauna of Canada, as currently known, is briefly discussed and the relevant literature is summarized. The main body of the paper comprises a classified checklist of species, with their recorded distribution, known to occur in Canada and the adjacent United States of America, together with a few others from a little farther south that might conceivably be anticipated. Over 60 species are listed for Canada and Alaska, together with about the same number of additional species hitherto known only as far north as those states immediately south of the international boundary. The European Archiboreoiulus pallidus (Brade-Birks) is recorded for the first time from North America.

In Part I of this paper consideration was given to the role of climate in the initiation of outbreaks of the spruce budworm in New Brunswick. Analysis of the available weather data showed that the 1912 and 1949 outbreaks developed after several consecutive dry summers. Support was given to the theory of climatic release, which explains the time and place of outbreaks on a climatic basis. However, the recorded history of the spruce budworm also shows that high populations appeared in New Brunswick shortly after "spreading" through Quebec, and this suggests that the New Brunswick outbreaks are also a continuation of this spread. In the present part of the paper consideration is given to the role of dispersal. Moth dispersal is a more effective agent of spread than larval dispersal. Moths may be transported by convectional and turbulent air currents for long distances. Light traps used to detect the incidence of moth movements, showed that large segments of a population may be transferred from one area to another. Unspent females often predominate in these movements. Moth invasion was not detected before the 1949 outbreak although there is evidence from other sources that it occurred in 1948. When deposited in dense, mature, softwood stands, the moths can create outbreaks, but when deposited in young, open, or mixed-wood stands the ensuing high populations soon decline unless bolstered by repeated invasions. Populations in New Brunswick showed gradual and general increases as early as 1947. It is thought probable that these increases resulted from the build-up of local populations through climatic release. The nearest highly-populated centers were over 100 miles to the west in 1947. Later, invasion of moths from centers outside of the Province may have hastened the process.

It is currently unclear how Toxoplasma gondii (Nicolle and Manceaux, 1908) persists in arctic tundra ecosystems in the absence of felid definitive hosts. To investigate potential transmission routes of T. gondii in a terrestrial arctic food web, we collected samples from two migratory herbivores, Ross’s Geese (Chen rossi (Cassin, 1861)) and Lesser Snow Geese (Chen caerulescens (L., 1758)), and from two resident herbivores, Nearctic brown lemmings (Lemmus trimucronatus (Richardson, 1825)) and collared lemmings (Dicrostonyx groenlandicus (Traill, 1823)), trapped at Karrak Lake, Nunavut, Canada. Antibodies were detected in 76 of 234 (32.4%) serum samples from Ross’s Geese and 66 of 233 (28.3%) serum samples from Lesser Snow Geese. We did not detect T. gondii antibodies in filter-paper eluate tested from thoracic fluid samples collected from 84 lemmings. We did not detect T. gondii DNA in brain tissue from these lemmings. Although a small sample size, our findings suggest that lemmings in this terrestrial arctic ecosystem are not exposed to, or infected with, the parasite. This suggests that oocysts are not introduced into the terrestrial arctic ecosystem at Karrak Lake via freshwater runoff from temperate regions. This study demonstrated that live adult arctic-nesting geese are exposed to T. gondii and therefore migratory herbivorous hosts are potential sources of T. gondii infection for predators in terrestrial arctic ecosystems.

Sex is a costly form of reproduction compared with parthenogenesis, but sex persists because of the more resistant and competitive descendants that it produces. We obtained thelytokous offspring from unmated female Doru lineare (Eschscholtz, 1822) earwigs, a species of insect in which parthenogenesis has never before been reported, and found that their number and survival rate did not differ from offspring of mated females. Current hypotheses support advantages of sex or parthenogenesis, but never equilibrium between them like the one reported in this paper. We suggest that parthenogenesis is how females multiply their entire genome and renew themselves.

This paper provides the first description of the cellular composition of the gill epithelium of feeding adults of Ichthyomyzon unicuspis Hubbs and Trautman, 1937 (silver lamprey), a parasitic species of lamprey that is confined to fresh water. The surface layer of this epithelium consists solely of pavement cells and intercalated mitochondria-rich cells, which are the only cell types found in all freshwater stages of lampreys and thus considered responsible for the uptake of Na+ and Cl– in hypotonic environments. This epithelium does not contain, however, the chloride cells present during the marine parasitic phase of anadromous lamprey species, such as Petromyzon marinus L., 1758 (sea lamprey), and which are responsible for secreting excess Na+ and Cl–. The absence of this cell type in parasitic adults of I. unicuspis also differs from its presence in parasitic adults of landlocked P. marinus and metamorphosing individuals of the exclusively freshwater nonparasitic species Lethenteron appendix (DeKay, 1842) (American brook lamprey), and which thus reflects the retention of a cell type that was crucial for osmoregulation during the marine phase of their respective anadromous parasitic ancestors. The absence of chloride cells in I. unicuspis is consistent with the hypothesis that Ichthyomyzon, which is at or close to the base of the phylogenetic tree for Northern Hemisphere lampreys (Petromyzontidae), evolved in fresh water or has been confined to fresh water for a very long period.

Intense browsing by abundant large herbivores can threaten the ecological integrity of ecosystems by inducing modifications in the structure and composition of vegetation that trigger trophic cascades affecting plant and animal communities. We investigated the relationships between density of white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)), forest succession after clear-cut, and songbird communities on Anticosti Island, Quebec, Canada. We hypothesized that lower deer densities would alter the trajectory of forest succession after clear-cutting and lead to a rapid recovery of habitat attributes favorable to songbirds associated with a dense complex shrub layer. Six years after establishing a controlled browsing experiment (0, 7.5, 15, and >27 deer·km–2) in recent clearcuts, reducing deer densities ≤7.5 deer·km–2initiated the restoration of balsam fir ( Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.) forests and increased the regeneration of paper birch ( Betula papyrifera Marshall). Increasing birch ground cover from 10% to 20% increased songbird total abundance, species richness, and diversity by 17%, 39%, and 31%, respectively. Alder Flycatcher (Empidonax alnorum Brewster, 1895) was only present at ≤7.5 deer·km–2and strongly associated with birch regeneration. The regeneration of browse-resistant plants such as white spruce ( Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) in some areas at high deer density favored the maintenance of many shrub-dependent songbirds but also species usually associated with forest canopy. Active management of deer populations in Canadian harvested boreal forests will mitigate losses in vegetation and songbirds caused by over-browsing.

Several lamprey species form pairs, comprising an anadromous parasitic species and a derivative nonparasitic species that neither leaves fresh water nor feeds as an adult. This paper provides the first description of the radical changes undergone by the cellular composition of the gill epithelium during the major phases in the life cycle of a nonparasitic lamprey (American brook lamprey, Lethenteron appendix (DeKay, 1842) (= Lampetra appendix (DeKay, 1842)) and discusses their potential functional and evolutionary significance. The gill epithelium of the larva of L. appendix contains ammocoete mitochondrion-rich cells (AMRCs), intercalated mitochondrion-rich cells, and pavement cells, as does that of the larva of anadromous parasitic species which likewise lives in fresh water. By the completion of metamorphosis, the AMRCs have disappeared and well-developed chloride cells have been produced, the latter cell type being essential for osmoregulation by its closely related anadromous species in hypertonic environments. By the attainment of sexual maturity, the chloride cells have been lost. Such changes in the timing of chloride cell representation could help account for the ability of some metamorphosing, but not mature individuals of another nonparasitic species ( Lampetra planeri (Bloch, 1784)), to osmoregulate in up to 70% of seawater. The well-developed chloride cells in the nonparasitic L. appendix represent the retention of an ancestral character.

The Southern Giant Petrel ( Macronectes giganteus (Gmelin, 1789); Aves, Procellariiformes), ranging from New Zealand to the Graham Peninsula and Patagonia and also from coastal Antarctica to Gough Island, displays significant geographic variation throughout its range. Six breeding provinces were identified, which show significant interpopulational variation. The formerly proposed subspecies Macronectes giganteus giganteus and Macronectes giganteus solanderi were confirmed. Macronectes giganteus solanderi has smaller homologuous parts than M. g. giganteus. Two of the provinces belong to the subspecies M. g. solanderi. Females are smaller and have shorter bills than males. In M. g. giganteus, outer appendages are longer in the sub-Antarctic than in the Antarctic, which is consistent with Allen’s rule. Moreover, an east-to-west cline shows a gradual decrease in body size. Within M. g. solanderi, the Chubut River Estuary (Argentina) and the Falkland Islands form the southern province, and Gough Island the northern province. The birds have shallower bills in Argentina than in the Falklands or Gough, but tarsi are longest in Gough. Macronectes giganteus giganteus is morphologically polymorphic but taxonomically stable, whereas M. g. solanderi, which is biometrically less variable, could undergo taxonomical differentiation. This paper gives arguments for further morphometric and genetic studies on the taxon.

Many animals undergo annual migrations. These movements are well studied at proximate levels, but their fundamental causes are poorly understood. Among tropical frugivorous birds, annual migration is thought to have evolved in the context of exploiting reciprocal peaks in fruit abundance among locations and seasons, yet previous tests of this hypothesis have yielded equivocal results. In this paper, I tested whether protein and (or) fruit limitation explain both uphill and downhill migratory movements in a tropical frugivorous bird, the White-ruffed Manakin ( Corapipo altera Hellmayer, 1906). While White-ruffed Manakins likely migrate uphill to exploit peaks in fruit abundance, I found no evidence that elevational differences in fruit abundance explain the downhill portion of the migratory cycle. This result challenges long-standing ideas regarding the causes of altitudinal migration because it implies that birds seeking to maximize fruit intake should remain sedentary at higher elevations. Data are also inconsistent with the hypothesis that White-ruffed Manakins migrate (either uphill or downhill) to exploit arthropod prey. Future studies should consider how variation in weather, predators, or parasites could help explain altitudinal migrations of birds from breeding areas to nonbreeding areas.

In this paper we explore the cyclic interactions of prey–predator systems by examining the relationship between cycle lengths of both species and the strength of their interaction. As a probe of interaction strength, we use the degree of counter-clockwise rotation in phase plots with the prey on the x axis and the predator on the y axis. We compare the results from a 25-year time series from the Hudson’s Bay Company data on American mink ( Neovison vison (Schreber, 1777)) and muskrat ( Ondatra zibethicus (L., 1766)) with results from three simulation models. We found that the strength of interaction (rotation range: –0.4 to 1.1 rad/year) was strongest when the two cycle lengths were similar and that it increased with the amplitude of the cycles (cycle range: 4–10 years). The time difference between prey and predator cycles that corresponded to the highest interaction strength was 2–3 years. Similar results were obtained with simulation models; the most complex Hanski model showing the overall best fit with observations. However, none of the models were able to reproduce long ranges of stable cycles by only changing one of their parameters at a time (ranges 2–4 years), whereas the observed range of stable cycles was 4–10 years.

Although many ecological studies of wild animal populations rely on capturing individuals at least once, few have investigated either the immediate stress responses of capture, restraint, and handling, or the longer term consequences on reproductive success. In this paper, we assume that the degree of stress increase with the time taken to capture and process an animal prior to release. The influence of time since onset of capture on body temperature and blood chemistry indicators of stress was investigated in 137 adult female Svalbard reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus Vrolik, 1829) and 63 calves of both sexes captured by net in late-winter 2004 and 2005. In addition, we looked for evidence of negative effects of capture stress on reproductive success in marked animals over the period from 1995 to 2006. Body temperature increased with both chase time and the time the animals were restrained. In the latter case, body temperature increased twice as fast in nonpregnant animals (0.13 °C/min) compared with pregnant animals. Cortisol, glutamate dehydrogenase, and γ-glutamyltransferase all increased with time from onset of capture. However, the relationship for glucose with time since onset of capture increased initially before declining again. We found no evidence of a lower calving success in animals captured the previous winter when compared with animals that had not been captured the previous winter. Likewise, there was no relationship between the strength of the acute stress response (measured as cortisol concentrations) and the probability of pregnant females having a calf at foot the subsequent summer.

Food-caching by arctic foxes ( Vulpes lagopus (L., 1758)) is a behavioural adaptation thought to increase winter survival, especially in bird colonies where a large number of eggs can be cached during a short nesting season. In this paper, we measured the energy content of greater snow goose ( Chen caerulescens atlantica Kennard, 1927) eggs and evaluated their perishability when cached in tundra soil for a whole summer. We estimated that eggs lost only ~8% of their dry mass over 60 days of storage in the ground. We used published estimates on digestibility of nutrients by arctic foxes to estimate that fresh and stored goose eggs contained 816 and 730 kJ of metabolizable energy, respectively, a difference of 11%. Using information on arctic fox energetics, we evaluated that 145 stored eggs were required to sustain the growth of one pup from the age of 1 to 3 months (nutritional independence). Moreover, 23 stored eggs were energetically equivalent to the average fat deposit of an arctic fox during winter. Finally, we calculated that an adult arctic fox would need to recover 160–220 stored eggs to survive 6 months in resting conditions during cold winter temperatures. This value increased to 480 when considering activity cost. Based on egg acquisition and caching rates observed in many goose colonies, we conclude that cached eggs represent an important source of energy relative to the needs of an arctic fox during winter, and have thus a high fitness value.

Male alternative reproductive tactics have been described in many mating systems. In fishes, these tactics typically involve a territorial male that defends a spawning site or nest and a parasitic male that uses sneaking or female mimicry to steal fertilizations from the territorial male. In this paper, we use molecular genetic markers to examine the success of males that adopt alternative reproductive tactics in two sunfishes, comprising the bluegill ( Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque, 1819) and the pumpkinseed ( Lepomis gibbosus (L., 1758)). In sunfishes, the tactics are referred to as parental (territorial male) and cuckolder (parasitic male). We show that cuckoldry rates peak in the second trimester of the breeding season in bluegill, whereas cuckoldry rates are lowest during this period in pumpkinseed. We also show that paternity of parental male bluegill is positively correlated with body condition, but not body length or mass. No relationship between these phenotypic variables and paternity in pumpkinseed was found. We discuss the patterns of cuckoldry in relation to differences between the species in mating opportunities, parental male defence ability, and cuckolder density. Finally, we discuss how the paternity data can be used to differentiate between two mechanisms underlying the expression of alternative reproductive tactics, comprising the condition strategy and alternative strategies.

The proboscis of male elephant seals ( Mirounga Gray, 1827) has been suggested as an example of a secondary sexual trait since Darwin. There has been much speculation about its social function (e.g., optical signal of breeding status, amplification of vocalizations, cue for female choice). However, it has never been studied in detail, probably because its fleshy nature makes measurement difficult. In this paper, we employ photogrammetry to measure the proboscis and facial morphology of a large sample of wild, unrestrained, displaying male southern elephant seals ( Mirounga leonina (L., 1758)). We describe ontogeny and allometry of the proboscis and analyze current phenotypic selection pressures on proboscis traits. We discuss the potential role of the proboscis in optical and acoustic signaling of male resource-holding potential and status. We demonstrate that proboscis size is positively correlated with age and body size independently, and that it is currently under a positive sexual selection pressure when the effect of selection on body size is removed. We suggest that selection on proboscis size is functionally related to the emission of agonistic vocalizations.

Feeding by uloborid spiders is unusual in several respects: cheliceral venom glands are absent; prey wrapping is extensive (up to several hundred metres of silk line) and severely compresses the prey; the spider’s mouthparts usually never touch the prey; and the entire surface of the prey is covered with digestive fluid. This paper presents observations on Philoponella vicina O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899, which provide possible causal links between these traits. The spider begins ingesting soon after it wets the prey, gaining access to the prey’s interior through a broken cuticle that was broken during wrapping and by digestion of the prey’s membranes. The more abundant of the two types of wrapping lines is also digested, but the remaining shroud of wrapping silk is dense and filters digested prey particles. Robust setae on the palpal tarsus and the spread position of the anterior legs during feeding probably protect the spider from contact with the digestive fluid. Spiders extracted about 65% of the wet contents of the prey, but feeding was slow and involved substantial water evaporation. We propose that selection in uloborid ancestors to recover wrapping silk led to increased wetting of the prey’s surface and that compressive wrapping facilitated this wetting. These traits could have led to loss of the now superfluous cheliceral poison glands. Instituto Smithsoniano de Investigaciones Tropicales (STRI) Universidad de Costa Rica Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama, USA UCR::Vicerrectoría de Docencia::Ciencias Básicas::Facultad de Ciencias::Escuela de Biología

We measured the rate of water loss and pore density of eggs of spruce grouse ( Canachites canadensis canace (L., 1766)) and ruffed grouse ( Bonasa umbellus togata (L., 1766)) from different parts of their range in Ontario. Eggs were dried in enclosed glass jars over Drierite® and in paper trays in open air at room temperature and humidity. Eggs were weighed to the nearest 0.01 g every 2–4 days and the change in mass was measured as water loss. Pores of shells were counted (pores/cm2) in the blunt, middle, and pointed sections of the egg. Eggs of spruce grouse lost water at a faster rate in Drierite® and in open air and had a greater density of pores than eggs of ruffed grouse. Rates of water loss were constant and varied inversely with ambient humidity, with the difference between species greatest in open air. Eggs late in incubation of ruffed grouse dried at a faster rate than those early in incubation in Drierite®. The adaptations of eggs of each grouse to the moisture of the nest may help explain their distribution, density, and habitat and nest-site selections, as well as behavioural aspects of the nesting hen. Both, especially the spruce grouse, may be good indictors of climate change.

Despite its role as a keystone species, few studies have investigated the habitat requirements of the Yellow-bellied Sapsucker ( Sphyrapicus varius (L., 1766)) in the northwestern part of its range, where the current forest harvesting rotation schedule and targets for reducing the prevalence of old and mixedwood stands may reduce the optimal habitat for this species. We studied nesting and foraging habitat requirements of nesting sapsuckers in a boreal mixedwood forest of northwestern Canada by collecting data on nesting sites and foraging substrates on twenty-four 16- to 56-ha plots distributed among four habitat types in 1998 and 2002. Nests (n = 68) were generally found in large (≥22 cm diameter at breast height) trembling aspen ( Populus tremuloides Michx) that were alive but declining and that showed high incidence (81.1%) of heartwood rot infection ( Phellinus tremulae (Bondarzev) Bondarzev & Borisov in Bondarzev). Nest-site use by sapsuckers was predicted mainly by the presence of external fungal conks and tree diameter. Among tree species used as foraging substrates, paper birch ( Betula papyrifera Marsh.) (65.6%) and green alder ( Alnus viridis (Vill.) Lam. & DC.) (21.3%) were used most frequently. The use of birch was strongly correlated with its availability. Mature forests had higher densities of nesting sites and foraging substrates than immature aspen stands. In addition to reconfirming the importance of mature mixedwood forests for Yellow-bellied Sapsuckers, our study also indicates that forest harvest rotations in northwestern Canada should exceed 90 years to promote the keystone role of this species.

The directional movements of the male European Quail, Coturnix coturnix (L., 1758), during the breeding season and autumn migration were studied using Emlen orientation cages. The characteristics and evolution of the habitat in which males were captured and the sexual behaviour shown at capture indicate that these birds move in search of mating partners rather than of suitable habitats. These displacements are known as “gypsy movements” but are better described, as argued in this paper, as “movements in search of females”. A majority of caged birds (59%) showed a preferred direction (α = 238.5°), which coincided almost exactly with that observed in recoveries of ringed birds during autumn migration (α = 251.3°) but not with results from cage experiments during the same migratory period (α = 187.8°). Therefore, we conclude that displacements of the male European Quail, as shown in ringing recoveries, are much more influenced by “movements in search of females” than by migration. These movements are clearly towards the southwest, the males taking short flights towards suitable breeding grounds and driven by river-course habitats. In addition, we confirm that Emlen funnels are suitable for controlled experiments on the orientation of males in demes of European Quail.

This paper reports on an intimate association of a cnidarian with glass sponges. Hexactinellid sponges of the genus Heterochone were found to regularly contain numerous tiny hydroids in their tissue. The hydroid belongs to a new genus and species and is here named Brinckmannia hexactinellidophila. Brinckmannia hexactinellidophila is a reduced form, lacking tentacles and gonophores, which certainly is an adaptation to its endobiotic mode of life. The possession of desmonemes allows it to be classified as a member of the suborder Filifera of the order Anthoathecata. The shape of the hydranth reveals some clear affinities with the Proboscidactylidae, a relationship which is also strongly suggested by a comparison of 16S gene sequences. Because a closer relationship to some other families cannot be excluded at this stage, the new genus is nevertheless not assigned to any known family and classified as Filifera incertae sedis.

We investigated thermoregulation and energetics in female big brown bats, Eptesicus fuscus (Beauvois, 1796). We exposed bats to a range of ambient temperatures (Ta) and used open-flow respirometry to record their metabolic responses. The bats were typically thermoconforming and almost always entered torpor at Tas below the lower critical temperature Tlc of 26.7 °C. Basal metabolic rate (BMR, 16.98 ± 2.04 mL O2·h–1, mean body mass = 15.0 ± 1.4 g) and torpid metabolic rate (TMR, 0.460 ± 0.207 mL O2·h–1, mean body mass = 14.7 ± 1.3 g) were similar to values reported for other vespertilionid bats of similar size and similar to a value for E. fuscus BMR calculated from data in a previous paper. However, we found that big brown bats had a lower Tlc and lower thermal conductance at low Ta relative to those measured in the previous study. During torpor, the minimum individual body temperature (Tb) that we recorded was 1.1 °C and the bats began defending minimum Tb at Ta of approximately 0 °C. BMR of big brown bats was 76% of that predicted for bats based on the relationship between BMR and body mass. However, the Vespert ilionidae have been under-represented in previous analyses of the relationship between BMR and body mass in bats. Our data, combined with data for other vespertilionids, suggest that the family may be characterized by a lower BMR than that predicted based on data from other groups of bats.