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From 1897 until 1957, beetles of the genus Calosoma L. (Coleoptera: Carabidae) were repeatedly introduced to the Hawaiian Islands as predators of nutgrass armyworm, Spodoptera exempta (Walker), armyworm, Mythimna unipuncta (Haworth), and lawn armyworm, Spodoptera mauritia (Boisduval). Through examination of institutional voucher specimens, archival field notes, and the literature, we document failed biological control introductions of eight flight-capable Calosoma species: C. calidum (F.), C. frigidum Kirby, C. marginale Casey, C. peregrinator Guérin-Méneville, C. prominens LeConte, C. protractum LeConte, C. semilaeve LeConte, and C. senegalense Dejean. In contrast, the vestigially-winged C. anthracinum Dejean, a rarely collected Mexican species never intentionally introduced, is the only Calosoma currently resident in Hawaiʻi. Calosoma anthracinum was misidentified initially as C. semilaeve, and thereafter misidentified as Calosoma blaptoides tehuanacum Lapouge. Both C. anthracinum and C. protractum were collected sympatrically at Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico during Hawaiʻi-based explorations, and we hypothesize that they were introduced together as a species mixture in a 1923 release made at Waikiʻi, Parker Ranch, Hawaiʻi Island. Calosoma anthracinum was little known to taxonomists at that time due to its limited native distribution, rarity in institutional collections, and absence from taxonomic keys, leading to repeated misidentifications. Calosoma peregrinator and C. prominens, two abundant, sympatric species from the Sonoran and Chihuahuan Deserts, were also taxonomically confused over this period, resulting in mixed-species Hawaiian introductions. Three species that failed to establish upon introduction—C. marginale, C. peregrinator and C. semilaeve—have been intercepted as singletons or pairs of individuals decades later, without apparent establishment. Calosoma beetles’ ecological requirements, dispersal abilities, introduction histories, and native ranges and associated climate are compared among species, the only unique characteristic of the successful colonist being flightlessness. The history of Hawaiian Calosoma introductions illustrates the need for robust and accessible classifications based on accurately determined specimens as well as comprehensive understanding of the biological attributes and habitat requirements of candidate biological control agents.

[Display omitted] • Calosoma beetles were introduced to Hawaii 13 times for biological control since 1897. • All purposeful introductions of Calosoma beetles to Hawaii have failed. • The single currently resident Calosoma beetle in Hawaii was accidentally introduced. • Contrary to all failed introductions, the successful colonist lacks flight wings. • Understanding the ecology of candidate biological control agents is essential. From 1897 until 1957, beetles of the genus Calosoma L. (Coleoptera: Carabidae) were repeatedly introduced to the Hawaiian Islands as predators of nutgrass armyworm, Spodoptera exempta (Walker), armyworm, Mythimna unipuncta (Haworth), and lawn armyworm, Spodoptera mauritia (Boisduval). Through examination of institutional voucher specimens, archival field notes, and the literature, we document failed biological control introductions of eight flight-capable Calosoma species: C. calidum (F.), C. frigidum Kirby, C. marginale Casey, C. peregrinator Guérin-Méneville, C. prominens LeConte, C. protractum LeConte, C. semilaeve LeConte, and C. senegalense Dejean. In contrast, the vestigially-winged C. anthracinum Dejean, a rarely collected Mexican species never intentionally introduced, is the only Calosoma currently resident in Hawaiʻi. Calosoma anthracinum was misidentified initially as C. semilaeve , and thereafter misidentified as Calosoma blaptoides tehuanacum Lapouge. Both C. anthracinum and C. protractum were collected sympatrically at Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico during Hawaiʻi-based explorations, and we hypothesize that they were introduced together as a species mixture in a 1923 release made at Waikiʻi, Parker Ranch, Hawaiʻi Island. Calosoma anthracinum was little known to taxonomists at that time due to its limited native distribution, rarity in institutional collections, and absence from taxonomic keys, leading to repeated misidentifications. Calosoma peregrinator and C. prominens , two abundant, sympatric species from the Sonoran and Chihuahuan Deserts, were also taxonomically confused over this period, resulting in mixed-species Hawaiian introductions. Three species that failed to establish upon introduction— C. marginale , C. peregrinator and C. semilaeve —have been intercepted as singletons or pairs of individuals decades later, without apparent establishment. Calosoma beetles' ecological requirements, dispersal abilities, introduction histories, and native ranges and associated climate are compared among species, the only unique characteristic of the successful colonist being flightlessness. The history of Hawaiian Calosoma introductions illustrates the need for robust and accessible classifications based on accurately determined specimens as well as comprehensive understanding of the biological attributes and habitat requirements of candidate biological control agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The parasitoid Eretmocerus mundus Mercet (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) and the predator Macrolophus melanotoma (Costa) (Hemiptera: Miridae) are two important natural enemies of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) which are distributed throughout the Mediterranean region. Both natural enemies are used in the biological control of B. tabaci . In this study, the success of single and combined release of Er . mundus and M . melanotoma against B . tabaci on eggplant was determined in 3 × 3 × 2.5 m net cages established in a greenhouse during the period of 2009 and 2010. Four different experiments were conducted; Er . mundus single release, M . melanotoma single release, Er . mundus  +  M . melanotoma combined release, and B . tabaci single release (control). For the evaluation of population development of whitefly and the parasitoid, leaf samples were taken at five day intervals. In addition, numbers of the predatory insects were calculated by using visual control method on whole parts of 15 plants in different treatments. Results of this study showed that the number of whiteflies was the highest in the control treatment, followed by the M . melanotoma (single), Er . mundus (single) and Er . mundus  +  M . melanotoma (combined) treatments, in both years. Low B. tabaci populations were observed in combined release treatments and the weekly mean density of immature whiteflies never exceeded 3.99 per cm 2 leaf area. M . melanotoma was not successful against B. tabaci when released alone. However, it does contribute to the success of biological control of B. tabaci when released with Er . mundus . In light of these results, we suggest the combined release of Er . mundus and M . melanotoma for effective control of whitefly in greenhouse grown eggplants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The stable fly ( Stomoxys calcitrans ) and horn fly ( Haematobia irritans ) are mainly parasites of cattle that spend the early phase of their life cycle in decaying vegetation, manure and soil, as members of a wide range of other harmful and beneficial arthropods. Predators of the family Macrochelidae are considered beneficial mites that have been considered promising biological control agents of fly eggs and larvae and of other harmful organisms. The objectives of this study were: a) to compare the predation and oviposition rates of three Macrocheles species, M . embersoni , M . muscaedomesticae and M . robustulus , on six prey species: S . calcitrans , Musca domestica , H . irritans , Bradysia matogrossensis , Rhizoglyphus echinopus and the free living nematode Rhabditella axei ; b) to evaluate the life cycle of the best performing predator ( M . embersoni ) on the most suitable prey species at 30 ± 2 °C, 95 ± 5% RH and in the dark. The three macrochelid species consumed all evaluated prey species, but M . embersoni had higher predation and daily oviposition rates on larvae of S . calcitrans (23.8 larvae consumed and laid about 4.0 eggs, respectively) than other species. Total immature development of M . embersoni was completed in at most about 1.3 days on eggs of S . calcitrans and M . domestica and 1.5 days on R . axei . Macrocheles embersoni produced most eggs (0.28–0.34 female/female/day; r m : 0.28–0.34) on those same prey. The results of this study suggest that M . embersoni is a promising biological control agent of S . calcitrans and M . domestica . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Better knowledge of natural enemy communities and their relative contribution to biological control is needed to design ecology-based pest management in agro-ecosystems. Here, we investigated the arthropod communities of pearl millet-based agro-ecosystems in sub-Saharan Africa (Senegal), with a focus on natural enemies of the millet head miner (MHM), Heliocheilus albipunctella (de Joannis). A set of 105 millet fields was monitored over the 2014–2016 growing seasons. Arthropods were sampled at three successive phenological stages, from panicle emergence to grain maturity. Eggs and larvae from Lepidoptera pests were collected to assess their identity and relative contribution to the biological control of parasitoids. Morphological identification combined with Sanger and Illumina DNA sequencing, using the COI full barcode (658 bp) and the COI mini-barcode (133 bp) respectively, was carried out to characterize arthropod samples. MHM was by far the main herbivore on millet, with a relative abundance of 97%. Predators were mostly ants (28%), earwigs ( Forficula senegalensis , 26%), mirids (20%), spiders (12%), carabid larvae (7%), flower bugs ( Orius maxidentex , 6%), and ladybirds ( Declivitata hamata , 1%). In all, 13 primary parasitoid species were collected, including five new species. Parasitism was dominated by three key species, including Trichogrammatoidea armigera (12.4% of egg parasitism), Copidosoma primulum and Schoelandella spp. (46 and 32% of larval parasitism, respectively). A primary reference database including standard and mini-barcode sequences of specimens attributed to species (15) was designed as a reliable tool for assisting arthropod identification. The results will be helpful when selecting candidates for augmentative biological control in millet-based agro-ecosystems in sub-Saharan Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food type is important for mass rearing of Brontocoris tabidus (Signoret) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae), which preys on Lepidoptera defoliators in eucalyptus plantations. The objective of this study was to evaluate the duration of nymph instars, reproduction and the life expectancy table of the predator B. tabidus fed with or without Eucalyptus cloeziana plants and Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in the field. Brontocoris tabidus females were separated into those with short (a) or long (b) instar durations. Life expectancy (ex) of B. tabidus females from nymphs with short stage duration, reared on E. cloeziana with prey was higher than those from long nymph stage with or without plant material. Feeding on plant material and/or prey changes life table parameters for the predator B. tabidus . Therefore, B. tabidus should be reared with prey and E. cloeziana to improve the mass production of this predator for biological control of defoliating caterpillars in eucalypt plantations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We evaluated the potential of using Pheidole megacephala as a biological control agent against the coffee twig borer Xylosandrus compactus (Eichhoff), an economically important pest of Robusta coffee in Uganda. Upon observing that P. megacephala was common in coffee fields infested by X. compactus , we tested hypotheses that (1) P. megacephala feeds on all stages of X. compactus , (2) P. megacephala can enter galleries of X. compactus inside coffee twigs in search for the prey and (3) P. megacephala ’s presence on infested twigs reduces populations of X. compactus in the galleries. In a Petri dish bioassay over 24 h, we found that P. megacephala preyed upon all stages of X. compactus without indication of preference. We caged up X. compactus infested twigs with P. megacephala in a plastic container over 48 h and found that the predator was unable to enter the galleries. Lastly, we caged up intact X. compactus infested coffee twigs in the field with muslin cloth sleeves for one month and found that P. megacephala reduced the population of X. compactus per twig by almost 22-fold compared to the untreated control. We concluded that P. megacephala is an indiscriminate predator of all X. compactus stages, and, though unable to enter X. compactus galleries, the predator may reduce X. compactus population on infested twigs. Exploitation of P. megacephala in the biological control of X. compactus on coffee and other crops would require additional studies on how to enhance presence of the predator on the infested crop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study we used sticky traps baited with plant volatile lures to monitor the biodiversity of natural enemies in orchard ecosystems in the western U.S. We compared the diversity of predator genera from season total trap catches in 37 different orchards (apple, cherry, pear and walnut) over a two-year period (2010−2011) using standardized Hill number biodiversity indices and community similarity profiles. For a subset of 23 of these orchards we were also able to monitor the change in biodiversity of predator genera over the full growing season in the different orchard crops. A total of 37,854 individuals from 31 different genera of foliage-active generalist predators were collected from all orchards combined. Mean sample coverage was high (0.98) and richness, diversity and evenness differed between crops in 2010, but not in 2011. There was more than 90% similarity in the richness of predator genera among crops and among orchards within crops, but a greater level of differentiation was observed among orchards when variation in their relative abundance and dominance in the communities was taken into account. There was a consistent rise in predator generic richness and diversity through the season in both years for apple, cherry and pear orchards, but in walnut orchards, a steep rise from March to May was followed by a decline through the rest of the season. In an additional component of the study, the species level similarity of predator and parasitoid communities was analyzed for total season trap catch data from six walnut orchards. The rarefied species richness of parasitoids was much greater than that for predators, although the diversity, evenness and dominance of the parasitoid species varied considerably among orchards. The results from this study highlight the fact that natural enemy communities in orchard ecosystems can be effectively monitored using plant volatile traps, and that these communities are surprisingly diverse despite frequent disturbance from pest management intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biological control agents including a wide range of organisms such as predators, parasitoids, and entomopathogens (bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and viruses) are frequently used to control insect pests. Despite commercial availability of these biocontrol agents their widespread use is limited due to biological and economic difficulties. Efficient mass-production relies heavily on the environment in which the agent is grown. Nutrition can play a significant role in important biocontrol traits such as colonization and survival, tolerance to environmental stress, reproduction, and longevity. Therefore, to increase biocontrol potential nutritional aspects should be considered prior to commercial production. This review aims to explore the role nutrition plays in the production and efficacy of biocontrol agents by summarizing the effect nutrition has on important biocontrol traits, specifically traits in organisms that target insect pests including predators, parasitoids, and microbial agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Wild populations of Orius laevigatus varied in susceptibility to emamectin. • Four strains were selected for increased emamectin resistance for 41–47 generations. • All instars expressed resistance, without evidence of cross-resistance to abamectin. • Resistance remained stable for 18 generations without emamectin exposure. • Inhibitors of the detoxification enzymes failed to restore susceptibility. Biological control is occasionally supplemented with insecticides treatments, which may have a significant impact on natural enemies. Typically, selective compounds are chosen to overcome lack of compatibility, but an alternative approach is the use of biocontrol agents resistant to pesticides. Orius laevigatus (Fieber) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) is the main predator used to control thrips and other small pests in greenhouses. The avermectin emamectin benzoate is a bioinsecticide developed for the control of lepidopteran pests, reported as moderately to highly toxic to O. laevigatus. Firstly, we studied the variation in susceptibility to emamectin benzoate in 32 wild and commercial populations of O. laevigatus. A 62.4-fold variation in response was found (LC 50 from 0.8 mg L−1 to 49.9 mg L−1). The baseline LC 50 was 4.8 mg L−1. Secondly, we exploited this intraspecific variation to select four distinct emamectin-resistant strains. After 41–47 selection cycles, four resistant strains were successfully obtained (LC 50 = 104–203 mg L−1) compared to the reference population (LC 50 = 4.7 mg L−1). The resistance was retained for 18 generations without insecticide exposure and was expressed in all life instars, especially from the 4th nymphal instar to adult. The emamectin-resistant strains did not show cross-resistance to abamectin. Inhibitors of the detoxification enzymes failed to restore susceptibility at the concentrations tested. Fecundity and predation capacity in the resistant strain was similar to those in a commercial population. The resistance obtained may be enough to allow survival of adults and nymphs of O. laevigatus exposed to treatments of emamectin benzoate across the crop season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coffee twig borer ( Xylosandrus compactus Eichhoff) is an economically important pest of Robusta coffee in Uganda. In this study, a formicid ant, Plagiolepis sp., found in X. compactus galleries at the National Coffee Research Institute in 2014, was evaluated for potential to provide biological control of the twig borer . In a Petri dish feeding bioassay, Plagiolepis sp. preyed on all stages of X. compactus except adults within 24 h. In field bioassays where Plagiolepis sp. was caged over X. compactus- infested twigs for one month in muslin sleeves, the predator colonized pest galleries and eliminated all life stages of X. compactus as opposed to the untreated control. In a survey of Plagiolepis sp. in 11 districts of eastern, central and western Uganda, the ant was present in nine of the districts with highest levels of colonization (over 18%) of X. compactus galleries in Luwero district in the central Lake Victoria crescent agroecological zone. These results appear to confirm that Plagiolepis sp. is an indigenous predator of X. compactus which invades pest galleries and feeds on the pest in the field. For prospective utilization of Plagiolepis sp. as a biological control agent of X. compactus , s tudies on the biology of Plagiolepis sp., its mass rearing protocols and factors favoring its proliferation in the field are highly recommended . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carnivores indirectly protect plants by reducing herbivory. This important ecosystem service can be undermined, however, as carnivores feed upon fellow carnivores. Such intraguild predation is exceedingly common, yet measurement of the degree to which this occurs has remained elusive due to difficulties in measuring the trophic tendencies of free-roaming animals. Conventional molecular methods, such as bulk-isotopic analyses, do not produce reliably accurate trophic position estimates, and often the inaccuracy is substantial. With the advent of compound-specific isotopic analysis (CSIA), it is now possible to accurately quantify the lifetime trophic tendencies of wild carnivore populations. Unfortunately, CSIA is extraordinarily expensive and time-consuming, limiting the number of samples that can be analyzed. The need for high-quality trophic information has to be balanced with the inaccessibility of CSIA. Here, we propose coupling CSIA-derived trophic position estimates with conventional bulk- 15 N analysis, effectively calibrating site-specific bulk- 15 N data and thereby allowing for trophic position estimation using bulk data alone. We also create a framework that uses trophic position as a basis to characterize carnivores as beneficial for crop protection. Within an agricultural field, we demonstrated the utility of this new approach by measuring the trophic positions of six common arthropod species. We then compare these trophic position estimates to those deriving from conventional bulk- 15 N analysis. Our hybrid approach produced more accurate trophic position estimates than the stand-alone bulk- 15 N method. Ultimately, we were able to examine enough specimens to determine which carnivore populations were likely beneficial for plant protection, and which were not. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pyriproxyfen is a juvenile hormone analog that has been widely used to control whiteflies and various other insect pests. Serangium japonicum is a dominant coccinellid predator of Bemisia tabaci (biotype B or MEAM1) in many agricultural systems in China. We assessed the toxicity of pyriproxyfen to S. japonicum to explore the compatibility of using pyriproxyfen and S. japonicum together to control B. tabaci . Eggs and pupae of S. japonicum were dipped into the pyriproxyfen solutions [100 mg (AI)/L and 200 mg (AI)/L] or solvent and water controls. Larvae were fed pyriproxyfen-treated B. tabaci eggs and the adults were fed pyriproxyfen-treated fourth instar nymphs. Significant effects of pyriproxyfen on all immature stages of S. japonicum were found, and the degree of effects depends on the stage treated and the concentration tested. Pyriproxyfen caused significant mortality of S. japonicum eggs, with only 3.3% survival rates at the higher concentration and 17.3% at the lower concentration. Development time of S. japonicum of treated larval instars to adult emergence was longer than that of the untreated larvae. The fourth instar was the most susceptible larval stage, while the egg was the most sensitive stage of S. japonicum . Moreover, pyriproxyfen significantly decreased oviposition by S. japonicum adults and subsequent offspring hatching rate. In conclusion, the S. japonicum egg was the most sensitive stage to pyriproxyfen. Thus for a combined pyriproxyfen– S. japonicum whitefly control program, applying pyriproxyfen after S. japonicum egg hatch would minimize the effects of pyriproxyfen on the S. japonicum population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Non-prey foods are an integral component of the diets of predaceous chrysopid larvae. • Chrysopid larvae benefit from sugary food especially after hatching. • Hatchlings were less likely to die feeding on sugar solution alone than on prey alone. • Fastest growth occurred when hatchlings had access to both prey and sugar solution. Although primarily predaceous, chrysopid larvae are well known to also use honeydew, floral and extrafloral nectar, and other plant-based sugary nutrients as food. However, the extent to which the three larval stages ingest sugary liquids and the value of this sugar-feeding to subsequent survival and development (if any) have not been quantified. Here, our first experiment examines how much sugary liquid is ingested when it is offered to newly hatched or newly moulted larvae of Chrysoperla pallida. After the intake of a fructose solution, the average weight of hatchlings was almost tripled and that of freshly moulted larvae was increased by 57% (II instar) and 26% (III instar). The second experiment was designed to identify and examine the effects of larval ingestion of fructose liquid on subsequent development and survival. In this experiment, each larva was subjected to a 24-hour period of a dietary treatment three times during its development: once soon after hatching and twice again, soon after each of the two larval moults. The dietary treatments were: 1) no provision – without food or water; 2) water only; 3) fructose solution only; 4) mealworm only; 5) mealworm, with water; 6) mealworm, with fructose solution. During the periods between treatments, the larvae were fed mealworms. This experiment demonstrated that access to a sugar solution had significant positive effects on larval performance. Larvae with the fructose solution alone were significantly less likely to die than those with no provisions, water only, or, surprisingly, mealworm alone. Moreover, fastest development occurred when larvae had access to both mealworm and the fructose solution during the first 24 h of each instar. Most of the mortality occurred during the first instar, and we did not detect any effects of the treatments on the cocoon stage, neither on mortality within the cocoon nor on weight. We conclude that sugar alone does not lead to increased biomass; rather, it promotes longevity and together with a protein source, it enhances the growth rate compared to a diet of protein only. This demonstration of significant positive life-history effects from sugar intake, especially for first instars, has valuable practical application: first, for mass rearing and lab rearing methods, and second, in the context of conservation biological control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Bemisia tabaci is major pest in the greenhouse worldwide. • Nesidiocoris tenuis is a zoophytophagous bug, which has a wide food range. • The 385 nm LED light can enhance the establishment of N. tenuis in the greenhouse. • Enhanced establishment of N. tenuis can increase the control efficacy for whitefly. Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) is a major pest of greenhouse tomato and Nesidiocoris tenuis (Reuter) (Hemiptera: Miridae) is an effective predator of this whitefly. Previously, we found that 385 nm LED lighting improved the predatory performance of N. tenuis on B. tabaci under laboratory conditions, ostensibly via mutual attraction of bugs and whiteflies to this wavelength, and improved aggregation of both insects around the light sources. Here we verified that LED lighting at 385 nm enhances the establishment of N. tenuis releases on tomato plants infested with B. tabaci under greenhouse conditions. In the first trial, conducted May-July, both whiteflies and predators were released three times; whitefly densities were not affected by LED lighting when predators were absent, but ended the experiment at lower densities when N. tenuis releases were combined with LED lighting than when they were not. In a second trial, conducted September-November under cooler conditions, a single whitefly release established an infestation and was followed by a single release of N. tenuis in two treatments, with and without LED. The LED lighting treatment maintained lower whitefly densities over a two month period in the crop, and higher densities of predators, than the predators-only treatment. Therefore, possible applications of short wavelength LED lighting to enhance N. tenuis augmentation programs in greenhouse settings appear worthy of further evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between two natural enemies of Coccus viridis (green coffee scale), an important hempiteran coffee pest was determined using a combination of experimental and observational approaches. Adult and larval forms of Azya orbigera, a coccinellid beetle predator were included on leaves of coffee plants with healthy scale populations resulting in lower proportions of scales infected with the second natural enemy, an entomopathogenic fungus (Lecanicillium lecanii). C. viridis populations on leaves where A. orbigera were excluded exhibited twice as much fungal infection by L. lecanii. In addition, field surveys of C. viridis populations on whole coffee plants corroborated experimental findings with eight times less fungal infection for coffee plants where A. orbigera was present than for plants where the predator was absent a month prior to surveys of L. lecanii. Despite a reduction in fungal infection in both the experiment and survey, the presence of the beetle reduced overall biological control of the pest only in the experiment where the receiver of the antagonism (L. lecanii) was more dominant in controlling C. viridis than the instigator of the antagonism (A. orbigera). In the survey, A. orbigera was dominant over L. lecanii, resulting in equal to greater levels of biological control depending on the degree to which A. orbigera was dominant over L. lecanii. Our results indicate that a negative relationship exists between A. orbigera and L. lecanii, but that contrary to expectations, this antagonism may in some cases improve overall biological control of the shared pest target. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] The fall webworm was controlled by Chouioia cunea and HcNPV virus. [•] Monochamus alternatus was controlled by Sclerodermus sp. and Dastarcus helophoroides. [•] Dendroctonus valens was controlled by predator Rhizophagus grandis. [•] Massicus raddei was controlled by a special black light and two parasitoids. [•] Four new parasitoid species were founded parasitizing emerald ash borer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Eriopis connexa (Germar) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) is an important predator with potential for biological control of insect pests. This research evaluated the development of E. connexa larvae fed on fresh eggs of Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) without (T1) or with (T2) scales or one-day (T3) or six-month (T4) frozen, or newly-hatched larvae of S. frugiperda (T5). The percentage of E. connexa adults was higher when larvae feeding on fresh S. frugiperda eggs with or without scales, or one-day frozen eggs of this prey and lower with eggs of this Lepidoptera after frozen for six months or with newly-hatched larvae of S. frugiperda. Duration of the larval period of E. connexa was 15.7, 15.8, 16.0, 17.6, and 17.3days, respectively, with these diets. The high survival of E. connexa fed with eggs of S. frugiperda shows the potential use of this prey in the laboratory to maintain this natural enemy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The ‘new species association’ biological control approach is based on the ecological principle in which a natural enemy is used that has not coevolved with a pest. The recent incursion of the tomato–potato psyllid (TPP), Bactericera cockerelli to New Zealand offered a unique opportunity to investigate the potential of a new species association for biological control of this pest. This laboratory-based study investigated the potential for a new species association between two New Zealand naturalized coccinellids, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri and Cleobora mellyi, and TPP. A third naturalized New Zealand coccinellid, Scymnus loewii, was compared as a potential ‘old association’. We conducted two experiments to determine consumption rate and feeding behavior, respectively, of adults and fourth-instar larvae of the three coccinellid species on mixed instars of TPP nymphs, using tomato and potato leaflets, and a no-leaflet control. C. montrouzieri consumed up to 30 psyllids over 24h, depending on leaflet type and predator life stage. C. mellyi adults and larvae were the most voracious predators of psyllids, consuming up to 100 TPP over 24h. Adult C. mellyi spent more time feeding on psyllids in the control (56%) and potato leaflets (30%) than on tomato leaflets. Larvae spent 79% more time feeding on the no-leaflet control, compared to the potato (24%) and tomato leaflet (14%) treatments. S. loewii consumed relatively few psyllids on all three substrates (<10 over 24h), and spent less time feeding compared to the other two species. By demonstrating that these predators will consume this psyllid, our results suggest that a new species association may potentially exist between C. montrouzieri, C. mellyi and the TPP. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Coccinella novemnotata, the nine-spotted lady beetle, was historically one of the most common lady beetles across the US and southern Canada. In the 1980s it became extremely rare and has remained rare. In 2008 adult C. novemnotata were collected from field populations in Oregon and South Dakota and initial observations suggested that these individuals seemed smaller than the mean size of the species historically. These observations led to a series of experiments to determine if there had been significant decrease in size and if any decrease found was due to a genetic change or to environmental factors. In the first of these studies we quantified the size of C. novemnotata collected in the field and the size of Coccinella septempunctata, a congeneric introduced species that was collected in the same habitats and has been implicated as a cause for C. novemnotata decline. The size of these field-collected individuals of both species was compared with the size of historical specimens and individuals reared in the laboratory. Field-collected C. novemnotata adults were significantly (20%) smaller than specimens bred in captivity and specimens from collections. To determine if prey limitation alone could yield the range of sizes observed we reared larvae across a range of prey availability. There was a significant effect of prey availability and adult sizes across treatments bracketed the range we found in the field. Low fed larvae are significantly smaller than high fed larvae. While these results do not definitively point to any single explanation for the decline of this species they are consistent with expectations for competition between C. novemnotata and C. septempunctata. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Several laboratory and field experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of kaolin particle film formulation Surround WP on the biology and behavior of the common generalist predator Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens). Kaolin 5% (w/v) suspension direct spray did not affect third instar larvae development to adulthood. The hatchability of recently laid eggs, subjected to the same spraying process, was also unaltered. However, third instar larvae coated with particle film after kaolin spraying showed slightly hampered movement capacity after measuring: distance moved, mean velocity, angular velocity and time spent in motion, obtained using the computerized system EthoVision. Parameters extracted from recorded larvae movement on a kaolin film surface showed similar decreased mobility results as well as preference for the clean control surface. Additionally, the larvae had difficulty grasping treated leaves. C. carnea adult females showed a predominant preference for treated leaves in oviposition choice tests. In the field trial, no difference in C. carnea adult abundance was found between kaolin-treated and control olive trees. These results indicate that disruption of movement capacity and dislodgement from the plant surface may be the principal negative effects of particle film on C. carnea larvae. Despite the positive trend in oviposition towards kaolin treated surfaces, a particle film attraction effect on adults was not observed at field level. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Conservation biological control (CBC) combines a diverse set of actions aiming to enhance pest regulation by the provision of pest natural enemies’ preservation in the crop environment. This is accomplished through appropriate implementation practices and the creation of infrastructures of non-crop vegetation. On most annual crops, omnivorous heteropteran predators comprise the main assemblage of native natural enemies. Their populations, when protected from pesticides, have shown a high potential in biological control. Aiming to promote their functioning in CBC, efforts targeted to modify the crop environment are focusing on the determination of their non-crop host plants that can support the predators’ persistence as well as the emigration of these predators to the nearby crops. Nonetheless, relatively few studies seek to collect essential and adequately verified data for the practical implementation of CBC approaches. In this review, the advances already developed are illustrated, the shortcomings are discussed and the future research needs are highlighted in an effort to intensify efforts for CBC developments on annual crops. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Reproductive ecology entails relating the physiology and behavior of an organism to its environment and the community in which it lives. Terrestrial predatory Heteroptera (including Anthocoridae, Geocoridae, Miridae, Nabidae, Pentatomidae, Phymatidae, and Reduviidae) display a wide range of reproductive ecologies. But in spite of this variability, a review of the literature reveals certain underlying trends that are useful in understanding how generalist predators function within their environments. First, the reproductive ecology of predatory bugs is inherently coupled to the physiology of the female and her eggs. Second, three population parameters are directly tied to reproduction (maturation rates, realized fecundity, and reproductive diapause) have great bearing on the rate of population increase and reproductive success of a predatory bug, but these three parameters fluctuate widely within and among species. The variables that affect these processes include the physiological status of the mother (mating status, age and size, and nutritional status), the abiotic environment in which she and her eggs live (temperature, photoperiod, water availability), and natural enemies that attack eggs and reproductive females. A final trend observed in the literature involves the hierarchy of events that must occur before a female finds a suitable oviposition site. Females all must locate preferred habitats, plants/substrates, and microsites in which to insert or deposit an egg, but they use a variety of tactics and cues in order to accomplish this, depending on their life history traits. Examining the factors that constrain and promote the reproductive potential of predatory Heteroptera will make biological control programs that center on them more reliable and sustainable. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this study we asked whether, in the context of a trap crop system, differential predation risks among plants influence host choice patterns of adult whiteflies, Bemisia argentifolii. We investigated whether adult whiteflies avoid natural enemies inhabiting poinsettia (a cash crop) and whether this behavior can be used to increase the movement of whiteflies to cucumber (a trap crop). The potential of cucumber as a trap crop was first evaluated and we found that significantly more whiteflies were attracted to cucumber when the whiteflies were released between the two plants. However, the accumulation of whiteflies on cucumber substantially diminished if the insects had first settled on poinsettia. Under such circumstances, we investigated whether movement of adult whiteflies to cucumber could be increased by creating conditions that would cause the whiteflies that had settled on poinsettia to leave the plant. A mechanical disturbance, consisting of shaking the plant, was first used to test this hypothesis. The shaking caused more whiteflies to leave poinsettia and move onto the trap crop, compared to undisturbed whiteflies. We then asked whether the presence of natural enemies on the cash crop could induce whiteflies to leave the cash crop and move onto the trap crop. Three natural enemies were tested: two predators, Amblyseius swirskii and Delphastus catalinae, and a parasitoid Encarsia formosa. The presence of D. catalinae on poinsettia induced significantly more whiteflies to disperse to cucumber compared to poinsettia with no natural enemies, whereas A. swirskii and E. formosa did not result in a significant increase. Predator avoidance behavior by adult whiteflies should be investigated further in the context of trap cropping and other crop-habitat alterations designed to help manage whitefly abundance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The predator Orius insidiosus consumes a mixed diet of prey, vascular sap, and plant-based foods through its life. Plant species identity affects the oviposition behavior of O. insidiosus in that it prefers plants where newly hatched nymphs perform best, in the absence of prey. Choice tests were conducted in the laboratory to determine if the presence of a high-quality prey item (Lepidopteran eggs) affects oviposition choice in a monoculture and also how prey presence affects oviposition preference for plants of high (i.e., green bean, Phaseolus vulgaris) or low (soybean, Glycines max) suitability for O. insidiosus. O. insidiosus laid 56.4% more eggs on prey-free P. vulgaris than prey-free G. max. The presence of prey on P. vulgaris increased oviposition on those plants by 26.4% over that laid on prey-free P. vulgaris. When G. max with prey was presented alongside prey-free P. vulgaris, O. insidiosus still laid 55.4% more eggs on the latter. Prey availability affects oviposition on plants of equivalent quality, but plant suitability over-rides the importance of prey availability for this zoophytophagous insect. Phytophagy in young nymphs is important for their survival and we hypothesize that O. insidiosus females are better able to forecast plant quality than future prey populations as resources for their offspring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Efficient pest control using conservation strategies requires sound knowledge of the dynamics of the pest and its natural enemies (NE). But the role of natural regulation under natural conditions is not easy to prove. The rosy apple aphid (RAA) Dysaphis plantaginea is the most detrimental aphid in organic apple orchards. Our aim was to determine whether and to which point the abundance and composition of arthropod communities associated with aphid colonies affects RAA population dynamics. The present study, based on weekly observations of marked and infested apple shoots was carried out from April to June in 2008 and 2009 in one experimental insecticide-free apple orchard and four organic commercial orchards located in south-eastern France. NE populations were the most diverse (7.3 taxonomic groups for 50 shoots) and abundant (1.44 individuals per shoot) in the experimental orchard compared to organic orchards (3.8 groups for 50 shoots and 0.7 individuals per shoot). The large RAA populations per shoot (more by 1.7-fold) observed in two of the five orchards were presumably related to a lower number of NE (less by 1.9-fold) and a high abundance of ants (more by 6.2-fold). Among the main NE groups, syrphids arrived first, followed by coccinellids and earwigs. Parasitism rates, mainly due to Ephedrus sp. (Braconidae), were between 0.66% and 6.93%. Based on their precocity and abundance, syrphids appeared to be the most efficient group of NE under the study conditions. By surveying the same shoots weekly we could demonstrate that RAA population dynamics were strongly affected by the presence of NE. This predatory effect was however not sufficient to prevent damage to the apple trees. New management practices aimed at favoring natural regulation, especially augmentative approaches, need to be developed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Augmentative biocontrol constitutes a safe option to reduce pest populations through the enhancement of natural enemies’ activity. In this context, the aphidophagous syrphid Episyrphus baltetaus (De Geer) (Diptera: Syrphidae) is a promising candidate for aphid biological control: larvae of this syrphid attack and consume a wide range of aphid species and are found on many vegetable crops. Because natural populations of beneficial insects are not always sufficient to regulate the pest infestations, this work has focused on the conception of a biological control device containing syrphid eggs which ones can easily be introduced in fields or greenhouses. Using semiochemicals [E-(β)-farnesene, R-(+)-limonene and (Z)-3-hexenol], honeydews and “artificial honeydews” (10% or 30% aqueous solutions of sucrose, fructose and glucose), the syrphid oviposition was artificially induced on an inert surface. Specifically, E-(β)-farnesene and concentrated mono-sugars (30%) were identified as the most efficient ovipositional stimulants. To test and validate the biological control device described above, laboratory and field experiments were performed: a plastic lamella covered with syrphid eggs was suspended on aphid infested plants in order to measure the efficiency of the device. The results obtained were promising since populations of 500 aphids were eliminated in 10 days when 15 syrphid eggs were introduced. The use of such a biological control device could certainly contribute to the biological control to reduce the aphid infestations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: For the mass production of the mirid predator Macrolophus pygmaeus eggs of the Mediterranean flour moth Ephestia kuehniella are routinely used as an effective but expensive factitious food. In the current study, the potential of pollen as a supplementary food for M. pygmaeus was investigated. In a first experiment, the minimum amount of E. kuehniella eggs needed for optimal development and reproduction was determined to be 40 eggs per individual per 3days. Then, different amounts of E. kuehniella eggs were offered to individual nymphs, supplemented or not with frozen moist honeybee pollen. Insects reared on only 10 E. kuehniella eggs per 3days suffered higher mortality, developed slower and had lower adult weights and oocyte counts than insects reared on 40 E. kuehniella eggs or 10 eggs supplemented with pollen. When the nymphs were fed only pollen, survival rates and oocyte production were lower than when both pollen and flour moth eggs were provided. On pollen alone, ca. 80% of the nymphs successfully reached adulthood; their adult weights and oocyte counts were, respectively, 12% and 32% lower compared with individuals fed optimal amounts of flour moth eggs. When an egg yolk-based artificial diet was supplemented with bee pollen, development and fecundity were better than on the artificial diet alone. The practical implications of pollinivory for the mass production and the use of this beneficial insect in augmentative biological control programs are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Climate change can have diverse effects on natural enemies of pest species. Here we review these effects and their likely impacts on pest control. The fitness of natural enemies can be altered in response to changes in herbivore quality and size induced by temperature and CO2 effects on plants. The susceptibility of herbivores to predation and parasitism could be decreased through the production of additional plant foliage or altered timing of herbivore life cycles in response to plant phenological changes. The effectiveness of natural enemies in controlling pests will decrease if pest distributions shift into regions outside the distribution of their natural enemies, although a new community of enemies might then provide some level of control. As well as being affected by climate through host plants and associated herbivores, the abundance and activity of natural enemies will be altered through adaptive management strategies adopted by farmers to cope with climate change. These strategies may lead to a mismatch between pests and enemies in space and time, decreasing their effectiveness for biocontrol. Because of the diverse and often indirect effects of climate change on natural enemies, predictions will be difficult unless there is a good understanding of the way environmental effects impact on tritrophic interactions. In addition, evolutionary changes in both hosts and natural enemies might have unexpected consequences on levels of biocontrol exerted by enemies. We consider interactions between the pest light brown apple moth and its natural enemies to illustrate the type of data that needs to be collected to make useful predictions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Coccinellidae function in complex food webs as predators, as consumers of non-prey foods, and as prey or hosts of natural enemies. Dietary breadth and its implications remain largely unexplored. Likewise the nature and implications of interactions with other predators in the field are poorly understood. The use of biochemical tools based on nucleic acids, proteins, sugars and other components of coccinellid diets, expands our understanding of their trophic ecology – but only under field conditions in which coccinellids live, reproduce, forage, and consume prey (including intraguild prey), pollen, fungi, nectars, and other foods. We review the various methods which have been applied to the study of trophic relationships involving the Coccinellidae, their advantages and disadvantages, and some salient innovations and results produced by the range of technologies and their combinations. We advocate employing multiple tools to generate a more complete picture of the trophic ecology of a predator. The false perceptions of the strength and direction of trophic linkages that can result from a methodologically narrow approach are well illustrated by the laboratory and field assessments of coccinellids as intraguild predators, a phenomenon that is discussed in detail here. Assessing intraguild predation, and the breadth of prey and non-prey foods of the Coccinellidae, is essential to the understanding of this group, and for their application as biological control agents. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]