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The thematic issue of Biodiversity and Conservation devoted to the biodiversity and conservation of insects and other invertebrates is introduced. The issue comprises 23 original research papers covering diverse habitats from forests to grasslands, ponds and rivers to coasts, and the tropics to boreal regions. Amongst the organisms discussed are ants, bees, beetles, butterflies, crabs, microgastropods, millipedes, spiders, and weevils. Some of the difficulties of conserving the most species-rich groups of eukaryotes, in the face of ignorance as to their identities and positions in ecological processes, are noted and the precautionary principle is seen as a pragmatic and responsible approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The conservation of biodiversity is a major goal in nature conservation, but measuring the total biodiversity of a site or a region is not possible; thus there is a great demand for indicators to represent biodiversity. To be able to make use of indicators, criteria must first be established for their selection, and the degree to which the indicators meet the criteria must be tested. However, the purposes for which indicators are applied-and thus sometimes the criteria themselves-differ between ecological science and environmental policy. As transparency in choosing and testing suitable biodiversity indicators will optimize the results of an indicator, this article first aims to determine if there are common approaches in selecting biodiversity indicators in ecology and environmental policy. Second, we asked which criteria biodiversity indicators were scientifically tested against to determine their suitability. To answer these questions, we analyzed papers on biodiversity indicators referenced in the Web of Science. Our results demonstrate different patterns for selecting biodiversity indicators in the different fields of application. In ecology, the quality of indicators is mainly determined by a close relationship between indicator and indicandum (i.e., indicated phenomenon), while the relevance of an indicator for a given issue, e.g., reserve selection or an assessment of a certain impact, is of paramount importance for conservation policy. Surprisingly, few biodiversity indicators are empirically tested to determine if they meet the criteria by which they were purportedly chosen. We argue that this is due to the different conceptualizations of biodiversity indicators in science and environmental policy. Since the suitability of biodiversity indicators remains untested in many cases, our findings suggest room to make better use of indicators in ecology and environmental policy. As the results of ecological research are put to use to solve environmental problems, the selection of indicators for ecological research should correspond to a large extent with those used in environmental policy. Further, to assess the suitability of a biodiversity indicator, it should be tested against all of the criteria relevant for its selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agrobiodiversity plays a fundamental role in guaranteeing food security. However, still little is known about the diversity within crop and livestock species: the genetic diversity. In this paper we present a set of indicators of crop accession and breed diversity for different farm types at farm-level, which may potentially supply a useful tool to assess and monitor farming system agrobiodiversity in a feasible and relatively affordable way. A generic questionnaire was developed to capture the information on crops and livestock in 12 European case study regions and in Uganda by 203 on-farm interviews. Through a participatory approach, which involved a number of stakeholders, eight potential indicators were selected and tested. Five of them are recommended as potentially useful indicators for agrobiodiversity monitoring per farm: (1) crop-species richness (up to 16 crop species), (2) crop-cultivar diversity (up to 15 crop cultivars, 1-2 on average), (3) type of crop accessions (landraces accounted for 3 % of all crop cultivars in Europe, 31 % in Uganda), (4) livestock-species diversity (up to 5 livestock species), and (5) breed diversity (up to five cattle and eight sheep breeds, on average 1-2).We demonstrated that the selected indicators are able to detect differences between farms, regions and dominant farm types. Given the present rate of agrobiodiversity loss and the dramatic effects that this may have on food production and food security, extensive monitoring is urgent. A consistent survey of crop cultivars and livestock breeds on-farm will detect losses and help to improve strategies for the management and conservation of on-farm genetic resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mangroves are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth, yet they are disappearing at a dramatic rate. Mangrove sediments harbor microscopic nematodes, which show specific responses to variations of sediment physicochemical conditions, thus being potential bioindicators for conservation purposes. Nematode communities are subject to the strong heterogeneity of mangroves and predicting their distribution remains laborious at global and regional scale, thus hampering final statements about bioindication. In this review, we analyze relevant research on mangrove nematode diversity in order to identify the ecological mechanisms shaping the nematode community at the global, local and micro scales, and to hierarchize the environmental drivers responsible for nematode genera sorting. At the global scale, nematode genera richness is positively influenced by latitude and community composition changes according to geographical regions. At the local scale, nematode richness, density and community composition follow opposite patterns along a land-sea continuum and mangrove trees may be responsible for the variations of sediment chemistry leading to such community patterns. At the microhabitat scale, the community shows unexpected similarities between a priori different habitats. Epistrate and detritus feeders dominate mangroves, but except for trophic groups, the use of functional traits is inconsistent among studies, thus impeding conclusions. Further understanding of the role of environmental filters in shaping nematode diversity at different spatial scales cannot overlook data gaps in unexplored mangrove areas and the heterogeneity of microhabitats. Future studies should investigate nematode diversity with cutting-edge approaches, such as β-diversity partitioning, functional traits and metacommunity analysis, and eventually integrate nematodes, microbes and macrofauna in a comprehensive framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural capital (NC) accounts measure and value the benefits that ecosystems provide to humans. Marine biodiversity supports human well-being directly by providing a source of food (e.g. wild fish), and indirectly by providing employment (e.g. fisheries, and tourism) and recreation (e.g. diving). The inclusion of the marine environment in NC accounting is relatively new. Central to the NC framework, biodiversity is one of the most challenging aspects to account for. Here, we consider the potential for marine biodiversity to be included in NC accounts, and explain why this is in line with current policy directions towards achieving sustainability and well-being. We present a set of potential indicators that could be used to assess ecosystem extent and ecosystem condition through their biodiversity, and inform policies aimed to improve sustainability and human well-being. We conclude that including biological indicators in NC accounts will help to consider marine biodiversity conservation and economic activities in blue spaces as complementary components of well-being. NC accounts can facilitate decision-making by showing, in few interconnected tables, trends in the provision of biodiversity in a specific area and for specific ecosystems. This makes potential trade-offs between ecosystems, ecosystem services, and economic activities more apparent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Calicioids are a group of lichenized and non-lichenized fungi that are superficially similar to each other in appearance. Many members of this group tend to be restricted to old-growth forests, for which they have been used as indicators. However, the definition of old-growth varies among jurisdictions and forest types. In addition, variables other than tree age, which is often used to define old-growth, have been postulated to be important for influencing the presence of calicioids (e.g., continuity, scale, and ecological and structural variability). These variables, in combination, can be taken to indicate something about forest condition, particularly its ecological integrity. To understand better the ability of calicioids to serve as indicators of forest condition, we recorded the number of species in 51 stands across a chronosequence in Canada's most homogenous forest ecosystem with the most frequent natural disturbance regime; the boreal forest. We restricted our sampling spatially and temporally in stands with similar tree cover and soil type. We recorded the number of species and biomass of all lichens in each stand along with forest stand attributes. We constructed 13 competing models to explain calicioid species diversity and show that stand age is important, but only in combination with stand condition. The strongest positive correlations were between calicioid density and lichen biomass and richness. Therefore, calicioid diversity appears to be a good indicator of habitat condition or conservation value in the boreal forest, which includes continuity. Similar research in other forest types that are more heterogeneous and have longer natural disturbance regimes will help build a better understanding of how calicioids can be reliably used as indicators of forest quality more broadly for conservation purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The changes in land use caused by human activities have directly impacted aquatic ecosystems, making these environments some of the most threatened places on the planet. It is increasingly necessary and urgent to develop tools to identify and assess the effects of human impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity. This study aimed to evaluate whether the Zygoptera/Anisoptera ratio can be an effective tool to measure ecological changes in Atlantic Forest streams. Adult Odonata were collected in 42 streams. An environmental integrity index was used as a measure of environmental change. The Zygoptera/Anisoptera ratio was efficient in classifying the state of preservation of streams; therefore, habitats with a proportion equal to or greater than 67 and 52% of richness and abundance of the suborder Anisoptera can be considered altered. Meanwhile, streams representing a proportion of 54 and 67% of richness and abundance of the suborder Zygoptera can be considered little altered or preserved. The proportions of responses were close to the proposals for streams in the Amazon rainforest region. The ease of identifying the specimens in the different suborders of Odonata is practical, enabling the implementation of participatory monitoring with quick responses for monitoring in the aquatic ecosystems assessed in the region. It is important to test the Zygoptera/Anisoptera ratio for a broader validation in biomes where this evaluation has not yet been carried out. In the future, this will enable the implementation of networks for monitoring the integrity of aquatic environments quickly, effectively and at a low cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An agro-environmental payment for the management of the so-called 'Biodiversity Promotion Areas' (BPA) has been used to accomplish biodiversity conservation goals in Switzerland. These areas have been managed according to specific limitations on mowing dates and fertilizers. We assessed the regional-scale effectiveness of BPA implementation within Ticino Canton by answering the following questions: (i) is plant species diversity higher in BPA than in conventionally managed grasslands (CMG)? (ii) which are the differences between BPA and CMG in terms of climatic, topographical, ecological, and vegetation variables? (iii) which vegetation types, functional groups, and plant species are specifically related to BPA? A total of 242 vegetation surveys (64 in BPA and 178 in CMG, respectively) was carried out in 55 farms and the main climatic and topographic features were assessed. Differences in terms of plant diversity, ecological indicator and pastoral values, species functional groups, vegetation types, and indicator species between BPA and CMG were assessed. The BPA harboured a higher plant diversity. They were located in steeper areas, at higher elevations, and characterised by lower soil nutrient content, mowing tolerance, and pastoral value than CMG. Dry meadow species number and cover were higher in BPA, while nutrient-rich meadow species number was higher in CMG. The species associated to BPA belonged to a wider range of functional groups and 38% of them belonged to the national list for biodiversity promotion in agriculture, whereas no species associated to CMG belonged to that list. Thus, our results confirmed the effectiveness of BPA for biodiversity conservation for the Southern Swiss Alps. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last 50 years, traditionally nomadic indigenous communities in Amazonia have increasingly adopted more sedentary lifestyles as a result of external influences. Permanent settlements lead to the concentration of disturbances (e.g., forest extraction and hunting) and threaten vulnerable species as well as those that provide important ecosystem services such as dung beetles. Here we evaluated the abundance, taxonomic, and functional structure (composition and diversity) of an ecological indicator group—dung beetles—along a disturbance gradient associated with a permanent settlement of the Jotï people in the Amazonian region of Venezuela. We applied generalized linear model to assess the response of dung beetle abundance to settlement distance and latent variable model to assess the influence of settlement distance on taxonomic diversity and functional structure. We found the abundance of roller-species increased but small-bodied beetles decreased away from the settlement. We found that proximity to the Jotï settlement did not affect metrics of taxonomic and functional diversity of the dung beetle assemblages in general, although functional evenness was lower away from the settlement. In contrast, we found impacts on the functional composition of dung beetles, with significant increase in the community-weighted means for roller species and large-bodied dung beetles away from Jotï settlement. Our findings suggest that the transition from nomadism to a more sedentary lifestyle has not caused widespread collapse in the diversity of dung beetle assemblages surrounding the settlement, however significant trends were observed in species-specific responses to human impact, and these responses were mediated by functional traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Establishing protected areas (PAs) ranks among the top priority actions to mitigate the global scale of modern biodiversity declines. However, the distribution of biodiversity is spatially asymmetric among regions and lineages, and the extent to which PAs offer effective protection for species and ecosystems remains uncertain. Penguins, regarded as prime bioindicator birds of the ecological health of their terrestrial and marine habitats, represent priority targets for such quantitative assessments. Of the world's 18 penguin species, eleven are undergoing population declines, for which ten are classified as 'Vulnerable' or 'Endangered'. Here, we employ a global-scale dataset to quantify the extent to which their terrestrial breeding areas are currently protected by PAs. Using quantitative methods for spatial ecology, we compare the global distribution of penguin colonies, including range and population size analyses, with the distribution of terrestrial PAs classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, and generate hotspot and endemism maps worldwide. Our assessment quantitatively reveals < 40% of the terrestrial range of eleven penguin species is currently protected, and that range size is the significant factor in determining PA protection. We also show that there are seven global hotspots of penguin biodiversity where four or five penguin species breed. We suggest that future penguin conservation initiatives should be implemented based on more comprehensive, quantitative assessments of the multi-dimensional interactions between areas and species to further the effectiveness of PA networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Directly observed biodiversity data have a limited temporal span of c. 100-150 years. Consequently, for a region such as temperate Western Europe, our knowledge of species distributions is restricted to a period impacted by the process of massive industrialisation. There is a danger of shifted baselines in terms of conservation policy and targets. Here we present a novel source of high resolution archaeobotanical information for lichen epiphyte bioindicators; these data can reconstruct species distributions for the pre-industrial European landscape. We compare these historic records to a species’ post-industrial distribution and environmental response, quantifying the spatial trend and causes of biodiversity loss. The results indicate regional extinction rates of c. 76% in response to habitat loss and industrial pollution. We propose pre-industrial baselines that would better represent biodiversity restoration for temperate regions (net gain), and which would be equitable with advocacy for species and habitat protection in the present-day tropics (no net loss). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study is focused on determining the response behaviour of five saline plant communities to two environmental variables: flooding and salinity. Also, total soil organic carbon, diversity, plant cover and vegetation height were measured. Once this behaviour is known, the impacts of future climate scenarios may be approached. Since some of these variables could be altered by climate change, the future vegetation dynamics might indicate the trending of change, so plant communities can be used as bioindicators. The investigation was carried out in some small coastal wetlands located in a semiarid Mediterranean region. Low values of diversity were found in these plant communities due to a great effect of flooding, followed by salinity. 'Reed beds' are bioindicators of flooding and environmental disturbance. 'Saline rushes' are also flooding bioindicators and efficient accumulators of organic matter. 'Mediterranean halophilous scrubs' are bioindicators of seasonal flooding and changes to salinity. 'Mediterranean halo-nitrophilous scrubs' might be considered as bioindicators of low flooding and low salinity in anthropic environment while 'Mediterranean salt steppes' bioindicate driest conditions. At present, Mediterranean halophilous scrubs are the most widely extended community, which could be interpreted as a consequence of a changing and sharply seasonal climate. Our research suggests that future climate change scenarios involving flooding increases would support the proliferation of the lowest diversity and thus lower ecological value plant communities (i.e. reed beds). Conversely, a future scenario of decreasing flooding would benefit the most diverse and valuable conservation community actually priortized by European Habitats Directive (Mediterranean salt steppes, Limonietalia). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Linear infrastructure such as pipelines and power lines is ubiquitous and responsible for loss of habitats and disruption of landscape connectivity. We reviewed published research to answer the following questions: (1) Which organisms are commonly used to indicate impacts of pipelines and power lines to biodiversity? (2) How do pipelines and power lines impact biodiversity? and (3) How are these impacts mitigated? Studies of pipelines most often used mammals and plants as bioindicators, whereas studies of power lines focused largely on birds and plants. A myriad of impacts were identified, including the mortality of plants during construction, changes to the structure and composition of plant and animal communities that resulted from construction, the creation of open and shrubby corridors within intact forests, and collisions and electrocutions of birds with power lines. However, in most studies baseline data were not collected, so magnitudes of the impacts are often unknown. Mitigation in many studies was mentioned only in the discussion as a way to reduce impacts, but mitigation techniques were rarely tested directly. We outline considerations when selecting bioindicators-research that takes a community- or ecosystem-level approach will more fully determine the scope of impacts of linear infrastructure than the historical approach of focusing on populations of select bioindicators. Mitigation strategies must ultimately result from appropriate baseline studies, scientific data collection and analyses, and be implemented within an adaptive management strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We conducted a meta-analysis of the effects of fire on the abundance and alpha diversity of ants based upon data published over the past 70 years. Overall, fire reduced ant diversity by 18 %, but had no effect on ant abundance. However, there was significant variation in the effect of fire on ant diversity amongst different vegetation types. Fire significantly decreased ant diversity in forests-especially in tropical forests-whereas in deserts, grasslands, and savannas it did not. Similarly, fire had a strong negative mean effect on ant diversity in sites where it is uncommon, but did not significantly affect diversity where it is a recurrent phenomenon. There is evidence that, in forests, wildfires have a stronger negative effect on ant diversity than does prescribed burning. In addition, we found marginally significant differences in the effect of fire on the abundance and diversity of forest ants among studies that sampled ants at different times post-fire, or that sampled ants from different soil strata. In contrast, fire did not significantly affect the abundance or diversity of savanna ants, and this was true even after we took into account the geographic location of the study, the ant community sampled, the time since fire, and the fire regime. Overall, the results of our study indicate that habitat type is an important predictor of ant community responses to fire. However, even within a given habitat, reported effects were quite variable among the studies reviewed, evidencing the idiosyncratic nature of fire effects on ants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the first time ever, the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List Index for habitat types was calculated for an entire country, Finland. The RLIs were based on species threat assessments from 2000 and 2010 and included habitat definitions for all 10,131 species of 12 organism groups. The RLIs were bootstrapped to track statistically significant changes. The RLI changes of species grouped by habitats were negative for all habitat types except for forests and rural biotopes which showed a stable trend. Trends of beetles and true bugs were positive in rural and forest habitats. Other 16 observed trends of species group and habitat combinations were negative. Several trends observed were in accordance with studies focusing on particular taxa and habitats, and drivers for their change. This study demonstrates the usefulness of the RLI as a tool for observing habitat change based on species threat assessment data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sixty percent of the land surface of the Republic of Ireland is farmland of which up to 12 % is estimated to sustain high species richness. Given that this farmland is predominantly pasture-based, the ecological status of semi-natural grasslands is particularly important for biodiversity. Recent studies indicate that those grasslands with high nature value (HNV) in the north-west of Ireland are wet grasslands. We investigated seven taxa as potential bioindicators of species richness of wet grassland habitats and examined how this information could be used in rapid assessment methodologies to identify areas of HNV. Grasses, sedges, rushes, ground beetles (Coleoptera) and marsh flies (Diptera) were identified to species and Diptera to parataxonomic units. Sedges was the most significantly correlated taxon with overall species richness of the remaining taxa. In addition, ten combinations of taxa revealed significant positive correlations with the remaining species richness of which sedges and carabids combined showed the strongest correlation. Our data indicate the appropriateness of using more than one taxon in rigorous studies to reflect the overall species richness of wet grasslands. Nevertheless, the use of a single taxon or a combination of two taxa has a useful role to play in the rapid identification, protection and future monitoring of species-rich wet grasslands where taxonomic and financial resources for rigorous studies are limited. We discuss this in the context of agri-environmental schemes and HNV farmland identification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Atlantic Forest encompasses a high level of biodiversity, endemism and degradation; hence, it is a biome of particular interest for biological conservation. We aimed to investigate the actual geographic distribution of tree species and, among the indicator species of each vegetation type, the conservation status and potential distribution of each species along a vegetation gradient of the Subtropical Atlantic Forest. We analysed the species' relative constancy to determine their actual distribution, obtained 21 indicator species of the different vegetation types and modelled their potential distribution using the maximum entropy algorithm. The potential distribution models were pooled to yield a single map, which was used to predict the distribution of climatic suitability for these species in South America. Our results showed that the actual geographic distribution is restricted for most species (~72 %). Araucaria angustifolia and Euterpe edulis were categorized as threatened species. The sum of the indicator-species maps showed reduced climatic suitability across most of South America. The southern region of Brazil and the southeastern Brazilian highlands, as well as a few areas of seasonal forests on higher elevations of the Bolivian Chiquitanía and Andean Piedmont, exhibited the best climatic suitability. Elevation was the most important variable in our models. Given the concerning level of forest degradation and the presence of endangered and geographic restricted species, our results are a relevant contribution to biodiversity conservation in the Subtropical Atlantic Forest areas, highlighting their floristic and environmental uniqueness and, therefore, the urgent necessity of preserving their biological heritage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Activities related to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (REDD+) bear potential benefits for, and also pose risks to, the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services (ES). Next to ecological, socioeconomic and technical factors, the priorities of key actors in REDD+ implementation shape the integration of biodiversity concerns. This study aimed to identify the views of key actors in the REDD+ implementation process in Kenya with regard to biodiversity conservation and monitoring in order to evaluate the degree to which biodiversity is likely to be considered in the (sub-) national REDD+ context. In Kenya, avoided deforestation in dry forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in different forest types are major REDD+ activities. Interviews with 34 (sub-) national and project level actors showed that the solving of socioeconomic issues was paramount for REDD+ implementation in general and for achieving additional conservation benefits. In REDD+ initiatives in dry forests, conservation objectives were primarily related to wildlife; actors stressed the importance of specific management measures to minimize human-wildlife conflicts. In initiatives to enhance forest carbon stocks, the sustained provision of timber, fuel wood and hydrological ES was regarded as a conservation priority and a prerequisite for project viability. The biodiversity indicators and monitoring schemes considered to be available by the actors were mostly related to particular species. In conclusion, integration of biodiversity concerns into REDD+ depends heavily on the resolution of socioeconomic and political issues. Increased collaboration between Kenyan actors can contribute to the development of monitoring schemes for detecting REDD+ impacts on biodiversity and ES on a landscape scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beech forests previously covered substantial areas of the continental region of Europe, however, their current distribution is limited to a small percentage of their former yet still potential range. Many beech forests are now protected under the European Union-wide conservation approach of Natura 2000. We analyse the impact of Natura 2000 on the management of beech forests via social science data on management practices gathered from 73 interviews with local stakeholders within nine case study sites in Austria, France, and Germany, and via an ecological analysis of Natura 2000 management plans (MPs). Our data reveals that the Natura 2000 implementation has had little impact on forest management practices. We found that the Natura 2000 network is well known amongst stakeholders, yet the objectives and measures for beech forest protection are usually vaguely defined in the MPs. According to our interviewees, in many cases this vagueness results in a disregard for the MPs, which hence fail to guide the management of the forests protected under Natura 2000. In addition, when ecological thresholds are included in the MPs, they are often below recommendations based on conservation research. In the case of the structural bio-indicator deadwood, the thresholds given by MPs for a favourable site conservation status were significantly lower than those considered within conservation science to be necessary in order to conserve typical beech forest biodiversity. We conclude that while Natura 2000 has raised awareness of the importance of European beech forests for biodiversity conservation, it needs significant additional efforts to make it an effective policy for forest biodiversity conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies measuring the damage in degraded environments have increased, and it is necessary to obtain reliable biological and ecological indicators for the recovery of such degraded environments and subsequent preservation. This study aimed to conduct a survey of local insects and evaluate their utility in monitoring forest restoration in a degraded area in the Atlantic Forest biome in Ribeirao Grande, State of São Paulo, Brazil. Collections with Shuey traps were conducted from 2006 to 2011 in four distinct forest fragments characterized by environmental impacts, human actions, and phytophysiognomic profiles: Forest (FO), a preserved area with native plant species; 'Capoeira' (CA), an area in the natural regeneration process; Planting (PL), an area reforested with native plants; and Pasture (PA), an area with only shrubs. A total of 2,456 specimens of Calliphoridae (Diptera) were collected. Mesembrinella bellardiana was the most abundant (n = 1,884) and dominant species in all environments sampled. The relative abundance of M. bellardiana in the most preserved environment (60.2 % FO, 24.4 % CA, 8.6 % PL, and 6.7 % PA) and other ecological parameters showed that it could be a bioindicator species, i.e., data on its presence or absence directly reflected the status of local preservation. Information on Neotropical dipterans associated with the forested environment is very scarce in the literature. To our knowledge, this is the first study describing the occurrence of Calliphora lopesi (Calliphoridae) in the State of São Paulo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By applying the framework proposed by Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, we analysed the current state and trends of 20 ecosystem services provided by Spanish rivers and riparian areas using 139 indicators. We compared the obtained results with the Europe and UK assessment. It is the first document that attempts to analyse the importance of services provided by Spanish rivers and riparian areas, and it forms part of the evaluation carried out for the Spanish Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Among the provisioning services, freshwater, hydropower energy and genetic resources were classified as high importance, and water regulation and self- purification capacity, and natural hazard mitigation are among the regulating services, with landscape- aesthetic values and recreation and ecotourism featuring among the cultural services. About 61 % of the assessed ecosystem services are currently declining or degrading, but are higher than the percentage calculated for Europe (45 %) or for the UK (53 %). All regulating services are degrading, especially water regulation, natural hazard mitigation, soil formation and fertility and biological control, and the cultural services related to rural populations. Likewise, the biodiversity of Spanish aquatic ecosystems is decreasing rapidly. Land use changes and overexploitation of biological and mineral raw materials have been the main direct drivers of change in Spanish rivers and riparian zones, and relate directly to increase urbanised areas and irrigated agriculture. Finally, we draw some considerations on alternative models for aquatic ecosystems management which maintain aquatic ecosystem services and their biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rigorous and widely applicable indicators of biodiversity are needed to monitor the responses of ecosystems to global change and design effective conservation schemes. Among the potential indicators of biodiversity, those based on the functional traits of species and communities are interesting because they can be generalized to similar habitats and can be assessed by relatively rapid field assessment across eco-regions. Functional traits, however, have as yet been rarely considered in current common monitoring schemes. Moreover, standardized procedures of trait measurement and analyses have almost exclusively been developed for plants but different approaches have been used for different groups of organisms. Here we review approaches using functional traits as biodiversity indicators focussing not on plants as usual but particularly on animal groups that are commonly considered in different biodiversity monitoring schemes (benthic invertebrates, collembolans, above ground insects and birds). Further, we introduce a new framework based on functional traits indices and illustrate it using case studies where the traits of these organisms can help monitoring the response of biodiversity to different land use change drivers. We propose and test standard procedures to integrate different components of functional traits into biodiversity monitoring schemes across trophic levels and disciplines. We suggest that the development of indicators using functional traits could complement, rather than replace, the existent biodiversity monitoring. In this way, the comparison of the effect of land use changes on biodiversity is facilitated and is expected to positively influence conservation management practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) the development of bioindicators is extremely necessary to achieve the conservation targets by 2010, and insects are considered an effective group for this goal. Drosophilids are regarded as potential indicators, although this idea remains untested. Therefore, we followed up a protocol to test the drosophilid potential indicator for human disturbance in the Brazilian Savanna, one of the richest and most threatened tropical biomes in the world. Sampling was undertaken in one urban environment and two biological reserves, representing four habitat types (undisturbed gallery forest, disturbed gallery forest, undisturbed savanna, and urban environment). We examined differences in the drosophilid assemblages among habitat types and used the Indicator Value (IndVal) method to point out the indicator species. We also tested the two-stage indicator validation, a protocol recently proposed in the literature, to validate the indicator species for undisturbed gallery forest and savannas, in independent samples. The assemblage variables varied mainly in undisturbed gallery forests, and reflected changes from an undisturbed to a disturbed stage. The IndVal associated with the two-stage protocol showed reliable characteristic species, which are very helpful for diagnostic surveys. Likewise, species that can detect changes in the habitats were also found. We found a set of indicators, which together may be very efficient for both assessing and reflecting a variety of conditions, improving the confidence of the bioindication system, expanding the taxonomic options for bioindicators, and therefore, contributing to the conservation of this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Testate amoebae are an abundant and diverse polyphyletic group of shelled protozoa living in aquatic to moist habitats ranging from estuaries to lakes, rivers, wetlands, soils, litter, and moss habitats. Owing to the preservation of shells in sediments, testate amoebae are useful proxy indicators complementary to long-established indicators such as pollen and spores or macrofossils. Their primary use to date has been for inferring past moisture conditions and climate in ombrotrophic peatlands and, to a lesser extent, to infer pH in peatlands and the trophic or nutrient status of lakes. Recent research on these organisms suggests other possible uses in paleoecology and ecology such as sea-level reconstruction in estuarine environments, as indicators of soil or air pollution, and monitoring recovery of peatland. We review the past and present use of testate amoebae, the challenges in current research, and provide some ideas on future research directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective biological monitoring in developing countries requires a balance of rigour and practicality. Unfortunately, there exist few general guidelines to help practitioners design monitoring programs that reach this balance. Here, we analyse a 33-year monitoring program from Ghana, West Africa, to provide both specific and general suggestions for monitoring in developing countries. Since the late 1960s the Ghana Wildlife Division has monitored more than 40 wildlife species with monthly surveys at sites throughout Ghana's nature reserves. These data present unparalleled opportunities to illuminate the scale and pattern of changes in animal abundance over time and the forces that drive these changes. We used sub-sampling of the Ghana monitoring data for four species in two savanna reserves to identify the minimum level of monitoring necessary to reliably detect changes in wildlife populations over 5-year intervals. We used a similar approach to estimate the minimum sampling needed to infer changes in abundance of hunters in reserves. Our results highlight the relative importance of comprehensive spatial and temporal sampling and suggest a requirement of no less than one monitoring site per every 285 km2 in large reserves and 65 km2 in smaller reserves. We discuss briefly the cost of effective monitoring and the relevance of our results to other regions of Africa and the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tests two polychaete surrogates, one for higher taxa and one for indicator groups, that will facilitate prediction of species richness in marine soft-bottom communities. Why reliable rapid-assessment methods for mapping of biodiversity are needed; Data indicating richness at the genus, family and order level were significantly, linearly correlated to total species richness In the polychaete assemblages along the Norwegian coast; Polychaetes found to be a good indicator of polychaete species richness and to a lesser extent also of whole benthic assemblages including the order Terebellida; Data indicating Terebellida is potentially well suited as an indicator group, since it contains long-lived, large species that are easy to sort from the sediment and it is well defined taxonomically; View that the use of lower taxonomic resolution and indicator groups requires further investigations in more local areas where there are conservation issues.

Examines the suitability of carabids as bioindicators. One of the primary goals of research on bioindicators is to identify species or other taxonomic units that would reliably indicate disturbances in the environment, and reflect the responses of other species or the overall biodiversity. However, there is no perfect bioindicator and selecting the most suitable one depends to a great extent on the goal of the survey. Carabids are frequently used to indicate habitat alteration. They have been used in grasslands and boreal forests where species number and/or abundances have been noted to change along a habitat disturbance gradient. A common trend is that large, poorly dispersing specialist species decrease with increased disturbance while small generalist species with good dispersal ability increase. Some species are not affected by moderate disturbance. There is, however, not enough research to determine how suitable carabids are for biodiversity studies, or how well they represent the response of other species. We conclude that carabids are useful bioindicators, but as crucial understanding of their relationship with other species is incomplete, they should be used with caution.

Evaluates the suitability of large carnivores as flagships, indicators, umbrellas or keystones in the context of boreal forest biodiversity conservation in the multi-use landscapes of Scandinavia. Reason why carnivores are impractical indicators of forest biodiversity; Importance of dedicated management programs in the conservation of carnivores; Ways in which conservation of boreal forest biodiversity can be achieved.