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Abstract: Background and aims: This narrative review aimed to provide a brief overview of five key research ‘classics’ produced by the innovative and radical thought leader, Professor Michael Anthony Hamilton Russell (1932–2009), drawing upon his other work wherever feasible. Methods: Narrative review. From more than 250 publications, we selected papers we considered seminal texts, published in 1971, 1976, 1978, 1979 and 1991. Results: Russell was among the first researchers to explain that smoking was a dependence disorder caused by the drug nicotine decades before this was recognized formally. He therefore saw quickly the importance of delivering nicotine in a less harmful format as a way of controlling nicotine withdrawal when stopping smoking, first studying nicotine gum. In addition to pharmacotherapies, Russell's research also explored the role of behavioural support, particularly the role of general practitioners (GPs), alone as well as supported by specialist clinics; this research underpinned initiatives in England to reimburse doctors for giving advice to smokers, and to provide a national network of smoking cessation services. Research on nicotine uptake from other delivery systems and routes led Russell to theorize that the speed and dose of delivery impacted upon the effectiveness of a product to act as a substitute for smoking. He commented on the addictiveness of the high nicotine boli delivered in quick succession when smoking cigarettes and argued that alternative recreational nicotine delivery systems would need to be promoted actively to smokers in order for them to compete with cigarettes, a forerunner for contemporary debates on electronic cigarettes. Conclusions: The legacy of Russell's landmark research is seen in present‐day nicotine science, policy and discourse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This commentary paper critically discusses the recent debate paper by Petry et al. (2014) that argued there was now an international consensus for assessing Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD). Our collective opinions vary considerably regarding many different aspects of online gaming. However, we contend that the paper by Petry and colleagues does not provide a true and representative international community of researchers in this area. This paper critically discusses and provides commentary on (i) the representativeness of the international group that wrote the ‘ consensus ’ paper, and (ii) each of the IGD criteria. The paper also includes a brief discussion on initiatives that could be taken to move the field towards consensus. It is hoped that this paper will foster debate in the IGD field and lead to improved theory, better methodologically designed studies, and more robust empirical evidence as regards problematic gaming and its psychosocial consequences and impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background and Aims: Dr Leslie E. Keeley was perhaps the world's most famous addiction cure doctor at the turn of the 20th century, but mainstream medicine dismissed him as a quack because he dispensed a secret cure. This paper aims to describe Keeley's now largely forgotten story and to draw attention to the role of contextual issues in the acceptance or rejection of any theory of addiction, particularly the neuroscientific theories of the early 21st century. Methods: This study is a qualitative assessment and contextualization of historical documents. Its main sources are archival and are, for the most part, unknown to historians. The paper also offers intellectual and historical context that is drawn from leading historical and sociological analyses. Results: Keeley's addiction cure was dismissed as quackery because it failed to meet the changing standards of late 19th‐century professional medicine. This begs us to consider contextual issues in any assertion of the viability of addiction therapeutics, in the present as well the past. Conclusions: Keeley's near erasure from the historical record was a consequence of a broader, late 19th‐century medical power struggle that took precedence over the testimony of tens of thousands of satisfied patients who claimed that Keeley's cure worked. Context matters in the assessment of the viability of theories of addiction from the past, but also from the present. Historians and social scientists are well placed to make those assessments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Aims The aim of this paper is to provide a critical overview of the development and current status of gambling in Australia. Methods The paper examines the history and current status of gambling in Australia with a particular focus on the prevalence of problem gambling in the community and developments in policy and treatment services. Results The paper highlights the contradictory role of State governments as both providers of treatment services as well as agents for the liberalization for gambling. It also shows how the notion of 'addiction' is conceptualized in Australian research and treatment services, including the preference for harm-based and public health approaches. Such perspectives view problem gambling as having multiple pathways and determinants that extend beyond the pathology of individuals. Conclusions Gambling in Australia provides a curious paradox. Highly liberalized State government policies that allow the proliferation of high intensity gambling coexist with extensive policy, regulation and research designed to address the negative impact of gambling on the Australian community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Across the addictions field, the primary outcome in treatment research has been reduction in drug consumption. A comprehensive view of the impact of substance use disorders on human functioning suggests that effective treatments should address the many consequences and features of addiction beyond drug use, a recommendation forwarded by multiple expert panels and review papers. Despite recurring proposals, and a compelling general rationale for moving beyond drug use as the sole standard for evaluating addiction treatment, the field has yet to adopt any core set of 'other' measures that are routinely incorporated into treatment research. Among the many reasons for the limited impact of previous proposals has been the absence of a clear set of guidelines for selecting candidate outcomes. This paper is the result of the deliberations of a panel of substance abuse treatment and research experts convened by the National Institute on Drug Abuse to discuss appropriate outcome measures for clinical trials of substance abuse treatments. This paper provides an overview of previous recommendations and outlines specific guidelines for consideration of candidate outcomes. A list of outcomes meeting those guidelines is described and illustrated in detail with two outcomes: craving and quality of life. The paper concludes with specific recommendations for moving beyond the outcome listing offered in this paper to promote the programmatic incorporation of these outcomes into treatment research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is a world-wide recovery mutual-help organization that continues to arouse controversy. In large part, concerns persist because of AA's ostensibly quasi-religious/spiritual orientation and emphasis. In 1990 the United States' Institute of Medicine called for more studies on AA's effectiveness and its mechanisms of behavior change (MOBC) stimulating a flurry of federally funded research. This paper reviews the religious/spiritual origins of AA and its program and contrasts its theory with findings from this latest research. Method Literature review, summary and synthesis of studies examining AA's MOBC. Results While AA's original main text ('the Big Book', 1939) purports that recovery is achieved through quasi-religious/spiritual means ('spiritual awakening'), findings from studies on MOBC suggest this may be true only for a minority of participants with high addiction severity. AA's beneficial effects seem to be carried predominantly by social, cognitive and affective mechanisms. These mechanisms are more aligned with the experiences reported by AA's own larger and more diverse membership as detailed in its later social, cognitive and behaviorally oriented publications (e.g. Living Sober, 1975) written when AA membership numbered more than a million men and women. Conclusions Alcoholics Anonymous appears to be an effective clinical and public health ally that aids addiction recovery through its ability to mobilize therapeutic mechanisms similar to those mobilized in formal treatment, but is able to do this for free over the long term in the communities in which people live. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the lessons that can be learned from the papers presented in the horizons of addiction treatment series of the "Addiction" journal. Three issues which have been elucidated on were: the effectiveness of addiction treatment and how it can be made better; the optimal policy environment for addiction treatment systems; and the role of science in addiction treatment.

Aims The Cochrane Collaboration is an international not-for profit organization which produces and disseminates systematic reviews. This paper is the second in a series of annual updates of Cochrane reviews on tobacco addiction interventions, covering new and updated reviews from 2013. Methods In 2013, the Group published two new reviews and updated 11 others. This update summarizes and comments on these reviews as well as on a review of psychosocial interventions for smoking cessation in pregnant women, and presents pooled results from reviews of cessation interventions. Results New reviews in 2013 found: low-quality evidence that behavioural interventions with mood management components could significantly increase long-term quit rates in people with current [risk ratio (RR) = 1.47, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.13–1.92) and past (RR = 1.41, 95% CI = 1.13–1.77] depression; evidence from network meta-analysis that varenicline and combined forms of nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) are associated with higher quit rates than bupropion or single-form NRT (varenicline versus single-form NRT odds ratio (OR) = 1.57, 95% credibility interval (CredI) = 1.29–1.91; versus bupropion OR = 1.59, 95% CredI = 1.29–1.96); and no evidence of a significant increase in serious adverse events in trial participants randomized to varenicline or bupropion when compared to placebo controls. New evidence emerging from updated reviews suggests that counselling interventions can increase quit rates in pregnant women and that school-based smoking programmes with social competence curricula can lead to a significant reduction in uptake of smoking at more than a year. Updated reviews also suggested that naltrexone, selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors and St John’s wort do not have a significant effect on long-term smoking cessation. Conclusions Cochrane systematic review evidence from 2013 suggests that adding mood management to behavioural support may improve cessation outcomes in smokers with current or past depression and strengthens evidence for previous conclusions, including the safety of varenicline and bupropion and the benefits of behavioural support for smoking cessation in pregnancy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims The objective of this paper is to present an overview of gambling in Germany, including historical development, legislative and economic changes as well as treatment options and their effectiveness. Methods The available scientific literature and research reports on gambling in Germany were reviewed to obtain relevant information on history, commercialization, legislation, treatment and research agenda. Results Gambling in Germany is characterized by compromises between protective and economic efforts. At present, gambling is illegal in Germany, and provision is subject to the state monopoly. Mere gaming machines (specific slot machines) are not classified as gambling activity, permitting commercial providers. In recent years, implementing regulations for state gambling and gaming machines have been changed. Concerning the treatment of pathological gambling, various options exist; treatment costs have been covered by health and pension insurance since 2001. Information on the effectiveness of treatment in Germany is limited. Similarly, the number of peer-reviewed publications on gambling is small. Conclusions German gambling legislation was subject to major changes in the past years. Based on the available body of research (longitudinal), studies on risk and protective factors and the aetiology of pathological gambling are needed. The effectiveness of pathological gambling treatment in Germany and the impact of gambling regulations on gambling behaviour also need to be investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim This paper discusses what type of legitimacy underpins addiction treatment in contemporary western societies. Method Broad review of the relevant literature. Conclusions The legitimacy of professional interventions and the future of service provision will depend largely on the relationship between the professional and the lay referral system. These in turn are intertwined with macro-societal changes. The basic categories in this relationship are, on one hand, the idea of evidence-based practice (i.e. the notion of using the most accurate scientific support for the choice of treatment interventions), and on the other hand the consumer perspective, which conceptualizes addiction treatment as an interactive process between the treatment provider and the consumer. The acceptance of addiction treatment depends in most cases on the client who chooses from a whole range of informal and formal problem solutions. To an extent, experts are thus controlled by their lay counterparts and need their consent to operate and succeed. This process is complicated by the trend towards evidence-based practice, which demands transparency and rigorous procedures and carries with it the basis for distrust in expert knowledge by displaying openly that every statement of fact is open to revision, and thus, to a certain extent, characterized by uncertainty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the authors' reply to comments on their article on future directions for behavioral treatment research in addictions. On the issue of bringing addiction treatment to open and the treatment programs be accountable, they argue that interventions associated with empirically supported therapies (ESTs) were so rare as to be undetectable, and that the field moved toward measuring and reporting on basic standards of outcome, and clinicians failing to meet those standards would be less resistant to ESTs. They added that recent well-conducted studies evaluating the value of adding ESTs to clinical practice suggest that the relatively small changes to practice can improve outcomes measurably and significantly.

Comments on Conklin and Tiffany's review article on the addiction cue exposure field. Linkage between basic and clinical cue exposure research; Identifying pointers from the animal conditioning field that might both limit and potentially increase the efficacy of cue exposure treatment in humans; Optimal methods of delivering cue exposure treatment.

Abstract: Background and aim: This is a follow‐up study of a previously published randomized clinical trial conducted in Norway that compared extended‐release naltrexone (XR‐NTX) to buprenorphine–naloxone (BP‐NLX) over 3 months. At the conclusion of the trial, participants were offered their choice of study medication for an additional 9 months. While BP‐NLX was available at no cost through opioid maintenance treatment programmes, XR‐NTX was available only through study participation, accounting for why almost all participants chose XR‐NTX in the follow‐up. The aim of this follow‐up study was to compare differences in outcome between adults with opioid dependence continuing XR‐NTX and those inducted on XR‐NTX for a 9‐month period, on measures of effectiveness, safety and feasibility. Design: In this prospective cohort study, participants were either continuing XR‐NTX, changed from BP‐NLX to XR‐NTX or re‐included into the study and inducted on XR‐NTX treatment. Setting: Five urban, out‐patient addiction clinics in Norway. Participants: Opioid‐dependent adults continuing (n = 54) or inducted on (n = 63) XR‐NTX. Intervention: XR‐NTX administrated as intramuscular injections (380 mg) every fourth week. Measurements: Data on retention, use of heroin and other illicit substances, opioid craving, treatment satisfaction, addiction‐related problems and adverse events were reported every fourth week. Findings: Nine‐month follow‐up completion rates were 51.9% among participants continuing XR‐NTX in the follow‐up and 47.6% among those inducted on XR‐NTX. Opioid abstinence rates were, respectively, 53.7 and 44.4%. No significant group differences were found in use of heroin and other opioids. Conclusions: Opioid‐dependent individuals who elect to switch from buprenorphine–naltrexone treatment after 3 months to extended‐release naltrexone treatment for 9 months appear to experience similar treatment completion and abstinence rates and similar adverse event profiles to individuals who had been on extended‐release naltrexone from the start of treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Commentary to: Is Alcoholics Anonymous religious, spiritual, neither? Findings from 25 years of mechanisms of behavior change research [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims To review the evidence base for classifying compulsive sexual behavior (CSB) as a non-substance or 'behavioral' addiction. Methods Data from multiple domains (e.g. epidemiological, phenomenological, clinical, biological) are reviewed and considered with respect to data from substance and gambling addictions. Results Overlapping features exist between CSB and substance use disorders. Common neurotransmitter systems may contribute to CSB and substance use disorders, and recent neuroimaging studies highlight similarities relating to craving and attentional biases. Similar pharmacological and psychotherapeutic treatments may be applicable to CSB and substance addictions, although considerable gaps in knowledge currently exist. Conclusions Despite the growing body of research linking compulsive sexual behavior (CSB) to substance addictions, significant gaps in understanding continue to complicate classification of CSB as an addiction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents comments regarding the efficacy of mindfulness training (MT) in the study of addiction. According to meta-analysis, the strategic approach may not be effective for treating substance use and co-occurring disorders because of its premature and unsubstantiated methods. Commentators stated that rumination and stress management were not able to maintain the common process of associative learning of patients by reducing unpleasant affective behavior. The author further emphasized the importance of transcendental meditation and relaxation imagery techniques to treat patients with cardiovascular and neural disorders.

Aims To describe the current situation of gambling in Spain, sketching its history and discussing the regulations and legislation currently in force within the framework of the European Union ( EU), and to review the epidemiology of gambling in Spain, the self-help groups and professional treatments available, and their potential effectiveness. Methods A systematic computerized search was performed in three databases ( EMBASE, PubMed and PsychINFO, including articles and chapters) and the reference lists from previous reviews to obtain some of the most relevant studies published up to now on the topic of pathologic gambling in Spain. Results Similar to other EU countries, Spain has a high prevalence of pathologic gambling, focused on specific culturally bounded types of gambling. Expenditure in online gaming has risen significantly in the last few years, prompting the Spanish government to draft new legislation to regulate gaming. Conclusions The gaming industry is expected to be one of the fastest growing sectors in Spain in the coming years owing to the rise of new technologies and the development of online gaming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims To provide an overview of gambling in the Netherlands, focusing on historical background, policy, legislation, prevalence of problem gambling, availability of treatment options and research base. Methods Literature review. Results Contradictions between gambling policy and practice have been present in the past 15-20 years, and have led to an increasingly stricter gambling regulation to retain the government policy to restrict gambling within a national monopoly. Conversely, political efforts have been made to legalize internet gambling, but have not yet been approved. Compared to other European countries, slot machine gambling and casino gambling are relatively popular, whereas betting is relatively unpopular. Last-year problem gambling prevalence ( South Oaks Gambling Screen score > 5) is estimated at 0.22-0.15% (2005, 2011). Treatment for problem gambling is covered by health insurance under the same conditions as substance dependence, but only a small proportion of Dutch problem gamblers seeks help at addiction treatment centres. Conclusions Gambling policy in the Netherlands has become stricter during recent last years in order to maintain the Dutch gambling monopoly. Problem gambling in the Netherlands is relatively stable. Dutch research on problem gambling has a lack of longitudinal studies. Most of the epidemiological gambling studies are reported in non-peer-reviewed research reports, which diminishes control by independent peers on the methodology and interpretation of results. Recent efforts to enhance consistency in research methods between gambling studies over time could enhance knowledge on changes in (problem) gambling in the Netherlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Aims To review the transparency of reports of behavioral interventions for pathological gambling and other gambling-related disorders. Methods We used the Transparent Reporting of Evaluations with Nonrandomized Designs (TREND) Statement to develop the 59-question Adapted TREND Questionnaire (ATQ). Each ATQ question corresponds to a transparency guideline and asks how clearly a study reports its objectives, research design, analytical methods and conclusions. A subset of 23 ATQ questions is considered particularly important. We searched PubMed, PsychINFO and Web of Science to identify experimental evaluations published between 2000 and 2011 aiming to reduce problem gambling behaviors or decrease problems caused by gambling. Twenty-six English-language reports met the inclusion criteria and were reviewed by three abstractors using the ATQ. Results The average report adhered to 38.4 (65.1%) of the 59 ATQ transparency guidelines. Each of the 59 ATQ questions received positive responses from an average of 16.9 (63.8%) of the reports. The subset of 23 particularly relevant questions received an average of 15.3 (66.5%) positive responses. Thirty-two of 59 (54%) ATQ questions were answered positively by 75% or more of the study reports, while 12 (20.3%) received positive responses by 25% or fewer. Publication year did not affect these findings. Conclusions Gambling intervention reports need to improve their transparency by adhering to currently neglected and particularly relevant guidelines. Among them are recommendations for comparing study participants who are lost to follow-up and those who are retained, comparing study participants with the target population, describing methods used to minimize potential bias due to group assignment, and reporting adverse events or unintended effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim To discuss the contributions and future course of the psychological science of addiction. Background The psychology of addiction includes a tremendous range of scientific activity, from the basic experimental laboratory through increasingly broad relational contexts, including patient–practitioner interactions, families, social networks, institutional settings, economics and culture. Some of the contributions discussed here include applications of behavioral principles, cognitive and behavioral neuroscience and the development and evaluation of addiction treatment. Psychology has at times been guilty of proliferating theories with relatively little pruning, and of overemphasizing intrapersonal explanations for human behavior. However, at its best, defined as the science of the individual in context, psychology is an integrated discipline using diverse methods well-suited to capture the multi-dimensional nature of addictive behavior. Conclusions Psychology has a unique ability to integrate basic experimental and applied clinical science and to apply the knowledge gained from multiple levels of analysis to the pragmatic goal of reducing the prevalence of addiction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Editorial. Examines whether the assumptions underlying interventions for acute conditions or those for chronic conditions are more appropriate for the treatment of addiction. Hypothetical study on the effectiveness of the treatment; Expectation for all addiction treatments to reduce symptoms following termination of treatment; Implications of the continuing care assumptions about addiction treatment.

Aims. The purpose of this study was to look for the ways in which people who have recovered from various addictions understand and present their change process. Materials. The research material consisted of 51 autobiographical stories of people who had been able to quit their addiction to alcohol, multiple drugs, binge eating, smoking, sex and gambling. Methods. The basic logic of each narrative was first defined. The narratives were then categorized according to what they presented as the key to recovery. Composite stories were then constructed and analysed with regard to their emotional, causal, moral and ethical meanings. Findings. The analysis revealed five different story types among these self-narratives: the AA story, the growth story, the co-dependence story, the love story and the mastery story. All of them helped to make the addiction and recovery understandable, they released the protagonist from guilt and had a happy ending by which the values of the story were realized. Each story type was told predominantly by representatives of a particular gender and addiction. Conclusions. As there are several ways out of addictive behaviours there are also several ways to construe the change. People who try to quit addictive behaviours could be encouraged to make full use of the cultural stock of stories in creating an account that fits their own experience of defeating their particular addiction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Commentary to: Is Alcoholics Anonymous religious, spiritual, neither? Findings from 25 years of mechanisms of behavior change research [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author comments on the article "Cravings as a mediator and moderator of drinking outcomes in the COMBINE Study," by S. S. Meenakshi and colleagues. He says that the article considers that "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual" DSM-5 version contains the alcohol craving as a diagnostic scheme product in alcohol use disorders. He adds that the authors addressed the concept of craving for the prediction of treatment response through a re-analysis of the COMBINE study data.