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Despite the fact that the Bible provides support for both punitive and merciful attitudes toward criminal punishment, analyses of the relationship between individuals' Christian religiosity and their punishment attitudes have generated empirically mixed results. In this paper, we argue that the inconsistency in the literature may be due to error in the way that religion is measured. Testing data from the General Social Survey, we contrast Smith's (1990) FUND scheme with Steensland et al.'s (2000) RELTRAD scheme, finding that the latter provides a superior fit to the data. The results suggest that evangelical Protestants are more likely to support the death penalty than non-Christians. Additionally, multi-item religious belief and behavior measures indicate that orthodox Christian beliefs increase support for the death penalty, while frequent practice of religious behaviors decreases support. We conclude with recommendations for how to further broaden the study of religion and attitudes toward punishment. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Changes in American municipal policing since the 1960s--the third era of policing which has come to be known as community policing--have led to police playing multiple roles as opposed to the narrower focus on crime control characteristic of the second or "reform and early professionalization" era. These multiple roles and competencies encompass both police deployment of new technologies as well as "soft skills" training for dealing with an increasingly diverse citizenry. This means that the modern community policing officer is expected to be a proactive multi-tasker, and in this sense his or her role is akin to the "contact man" originally recognized with regard to the special tasks and skills of persons playing these roles in the arts and entertainment culture industry. The paper illustrates how modern municipal police, as well as the institutional environments of community policing departments, are consistent with the notion of the "contact man." ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within the last twenty years, community policing and COMPSTAT have appeared as two powerful engines of police reform. Community policing, a term associated with a broad range of priorities, organizational changes, and activities, has promised a host of benefits. These include more effective crime control, better police-community relations, and more responsive problem solving. COMPSTAT, an innovation in police organization that combines clearly defined management principles with cutting-edge crime analysis and geographic information systems technology, promises to focus like a laser on just reducing crime. Prior research has suggested that both innovations diffused rapidly, and that many police organizations are trying to pursue both simultaneously. In spite of the popularity of these programs among police and policy makers, there is virtually no systematic research on how these reforms work together. Using data collected through field observations, interviews, and focus groups at seven U.S. police departments that have fully implemented COMPSTAT and community policing, this paper provides an in-depth examination of the challenges and opportunities of implementing these reforms simultaneously. Its focus is on the lessons learned from those who "have been there," including some plausible approaches for reconciling the problems that have arisen. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While youth crime is becoming more violent and serious as youth begin a life a crime at an earlier age, there appears no consensus among the researchers about why and how youth become involved in criminal behavior. Multi problem youth present a new challenge both in terms of conceptualizing the problem, and in providing criminal justice practitioners useful and effective ways to respond. This paper provides an age graded integrated theory of child underdevelopment to better understand the phenomena of multi problem youth and to serve as a basis for early intervention programs to assist youth and better protect communities. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using qualitative and quantitative data, this paper examines recent developments of criminal hate speech laws in European nations and the role of the European Union from a historical institutionalist perspective. It will examine the role of various social actors in the promotion and resistance of hate speech laws as well as possible implications for ethnic conflict in Europe. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Upsurges in girls' arrest rates for violence since the 1980s have touched off increasing attention to the phenomenon of violent girls. Perspectives and explanations in this literature range, with some researchers suggesting that contemporary girls are gaining a violent brand of equality with boys by becoming one of the guys and forging their own code of the streets. Others argue that girls' violence stems not from gender parity, but from gender inequalities. Within this perspective, increases in girls' arrests for violence result from the recent intensified policing of girls in intimate contexts such as schools and families. This paper reflects upon these two perspectives by presenting findings from a two year ethnographic study of youth violence, including observations of and interviews with public high school students, staff, and parents. Findings identify a conflicting violent girl discourse. Parents, school staff, and students consistently supported the larger gender equity perspective by noting that girls fight just as often, for the same reasons, and are treated the same as boys. Within their gender equity narratives, however, study participants reveal how violent girls were constructed and treated very differently than violent boys. These data, first, build a bridge between gender parity and inequality perspectives in the girls' violence literature and, second, fill gaps in our knowledge about how girls' violence is policed in everyday school contexts. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transnational studies can provide insights into the nature of drug market violence.The role of firearms and drug selling in youthful violence has been a major concern in the USA, less so in Canada until recently. This paper is based on the student data collected in the Drugs, Alcohol and Violence International [DAVI] study. Representative samples of high school students in Toronto (n=967) and Philadelphia (n=712) were surveyed using the same questionnaire and methods. Male and female students are compared on weapon carrying, drug selling, gang involvement and experience of being threatened or hurt by a gun, both against self and against others. Detailed accounts of the most violent incident experienced in the last year, and its relation to drug selling, were also elicited. A logistic regression found that involvement in gang fights was a stronger predictor of gun related violence than drug selling, in both cities. Implications for gun control policy and other means of prevention are discussed. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper traces the development of criminological interest in the nexus between immigration and crime. Based on a meta-analysis of the literature, it argues that no other topic within the pantheon of criminological interests better illustrates (a) either the connection between the global and the local or (b) the growth of criminological interests beyond the confines of Sutherland's three-part division of the field. What began as a major concern for early sociological criminology theories about the causes of crime has evolved into multifaceted set of focal concerns including: (1) the victimization of immigrants in various forms such as hate crime, domestic abuse, trafficking of humans, frauds, theft of wages, and ordinary street crime; (2) the criminalization of immigration policy; (3) bias in the criminal justice system's reaction to immigrants; (4) police policies regarding their relationships with immigrant communities, particular illegal immigrants; (5) the international ramifications regarding the diffusion of violent criminal behavior and fostering transnational networks of violent gangs of policies of deporting large numbers of criminal aliens back to their homelands; and (6) the relative effectiveness of various policies for the prevention of illegal immigration with special attention to the impact of anti-terrorist measures. Today's research on the immigration and crime is immigrant friendly. It has not only produced new evidence showing that immigrants are less criminally involved than natives. It has also shed much greater light on the plight of immigrants as victims of crimes and of negative public perceptions and policies. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on an analysis of 362 homicide investigations from a two-year period in Phoenix, Arizona. The analysis was part of an evaluation conducted by the author of a grant awarded to the Phoenix Police Department by the Bureau of Justice Assistance to improve homicide investigations. The evaluation was supported by the National Institute of Justice. Information was obtained on each homicide investigation starting from the initial crime scene to final disposition. Data for the cases were obtained by reading the original incident report, supplemental investigative reports, forensic analysis reports, and prosecutorial outcomes. The evaluation included an analysis of evidence collected at all primary and secondary scenes. Quantitative analyses were conducted on factors differentiating open and closed cases, and on the elapsed time from incident to arrest. A qualitative part of the study was an expansion of work of other researchers on whodunits and self-solving cases to include a third category of quick action arrests. Information was also obtained on the final prosecutorial outcome of 103 arrests made as a result of investigations. The role of forensic evidence in investigations and prosecution was examined as part of the study. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper offers a content analysis of electronic news reports of parricide cases occurring in the United States. An extensive search of online databases identified 150 unique cases of children killing parents reported in the news media. Data pertaining to incidents, case-related variables (e.g., weapons used, other charges) and the processing of offenders from the initial charge through conviction and sentencing are examined in this article. To the extent possible, media accounts are used to classify cases according to motive and Heide's three types of parricide offenders (severely abused, severely mentally ill, and dangerously antisocial). The accuracy of online coverage of U.S. parricide incidents is assessed using two types of resources: officially reported national statistics on known parricidal incidents and the psychological/psychiatric literature on matricide and patricide. Comparisons of news accounts of media-reported U.S. parricide cases with Supplementary Homicide Report data indicated, as predicted by media and crime experts, that electronic media coverage of parricide cases focused on the more sensational, horrifying, and unusual parricides, namely those incidents involving multiple victims, multiple offenders, juvenile offenders, and female killers. Analyses of these media accounts by offender age found 13 significant differences between juvenile and adult parricide offenders. Ten of these 13 differences related to motive and Heide's parricide offender types and were consistent with the mental health related literature in this area. The limitations and directions for future research are discussed at length. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the depiction of spousal abuse in Egyptian film in the first half decade of the third Millennium . Eighteen women-centered films selected from a random comprehensive list of films produced in the years from 1999-2003 form the basis of the data. The absence of physical spousal abuse depiction in the sample of eighteen movies is explained and its impact are discussed ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper first reviews evidence on the importance of gun trafficking in supplying guns to criminals, as well as the characteristics of guns and licensed gun dealers that are thought to serve as indirect indicators that the guns were trafficked or the dealers were involved in trafficking. Law enforcement evidence is reviewed and indicates that high-volume trafficking is extremely unusual, and that typical "traffickers" actually deal fewer than a dozen guns. The aggregate volume of guns moved by known traffickers is small in comparison with even very conservative estimates of the number of guns stolen. While it is impossible to prove a negative, existing evidence clearly does not provide affirmative support for the importance of high-volume traffickers in supplying criminals with guns.Why, then, do media outlets and many scholars insist that high-volume gun trafficking is a significant source of crime guns? The myth appears to be a product of (1) the presentation of rare and unrepresentative examples of traffickers as if they were commonplace and typical, in combination with (2) misinterpretations of gun trace gun from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms. The original source of the misinterpretations appears to be the nation's most prominent gun control advocacy organization, the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence, which stressed the supposed involvement of licensed dealers in gun trafficking, as part of their campaign of lawsuits against the firearms industry. Many scholars, however, have uncritically repeated the same misinterpretations, importing politically inspired claims into the realm of supposedly scholarly knowledge. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the extent to which violence on the street can be explained by rational factors associated with the successful commission of the offence or social factors related to street culture. The study is based on qualitative interviews with 55 violent street offenders who were serving sentences for street robbery and assault in six prisons in the UK. The findings identified four main explanations for street violence: (1) successful offence enactment, (2) buzz and excitement, (3) status and honour, and (4) informal justice. The implications of the findings are discussed in the context of cultural criminology and research on street culture. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the contribution of community factors to the juvenile violent crime drop that began in 1993. Using a sample of 134 counties, we employ change-score analysis to test the relationships between changes in four categories of community influences and juvenile violent crime trends during the 1990's. The categories include demography, poverty and poor families, community capacity, and illegitimate economic opportunities. We found that community capacity changes were the most strongly related to juvenile violence trends, although different aspects of community capacity were influential during the early and late years of the drop. Poverty concentration appears to have played a role during the latter years. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines shifting police roles over the three broad eras of policing identified by Kelling and Moore (1988). During the earliest political spoils era, police were generalists who maintained close contact with the citizens they served as well as political allegiances to city hall and to ward bosses of their districts. During the second, reform and early professionalization era, police operated more as specialists in crime control who by distancing themselves from citizens and political influence in this manner attempted to eradicate the corruption and patronage abuses endemic to the previous era. Finally, in the latest community policing era police are once again generalists, who are now expected to be boundary-spanning multitaskers to serve the disparate needs of a much more fragmented and diverse community than was the case in the earliest period. Problems associated with the image of police as boundary-spanning multitaskers are discussed. Going beyond the community policing model, it is suggested that police should return to their roles as specialists in crime control, the only viable strategy for muncipal policing in an increasingly fragmented and contentions urban environment. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines linkages between differential oppression theory and developmental criminological explanations of violent criminal behavior. Violent offenders rarely emerge only in adulthood and then go on to commit crime. More realistic is that their pathology is the product of nature and nurture interacting over the developmental stages of life. The link between antisocial behaviors occurring in different life stages is well developed in the developmental literature. What has not been closely examined is how the process of moving from problem child to adult violent offender reflects childhoods in which oppressive behaviors by parents profoundly influences how children experience the stages in their development. When parents treat their children as lesser beings or possessions, they demean their humanity and set them on a path of maladaptive development. While many children adapt to their oppression by passive acceptance, many others respond with more problematic adaptations, including the exercise of illegitimate coercive power, manipulation of their peers, or retaliation. More frequent and severe oppressive acts by adults thus produce troubled youth who have significantly greater likelihoods of becoming predatory violent adult offenders. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines data from in-depth interviews with 19 marginalized battered women in order to better understand what factors influence their help-seeking decisions. Using a grounded theory approach, this analysis aims to establish a theoretical framework for understanding battered women's help-seeking. In particular, the key theoretical development suggested by this analysis is that childhood victimization experiences can play an important role in shaping adult help-seeking behaviors. Research and policy implications of this finding will be addressed. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper compares two different sources of national homicide estimates, the National Center for Health Statistics' National Vital Statistics System and Federal Bureau of Investigation's Supplementary Homicide Reports. As more and more research is conducted on homicides at the city-level it important to understand the intricacies of publicly available data. Empirical comparisons are conducted at the city-level for these two sources of homicide data. Exact matches for homicide estimates between the NVSS and SHR occurred in less than 5% of the cases. In more than 70% of sample cases, the NVSS reported more homicides than the SHR. When city population was taken into account in the calculation of homicide rates, large differences were found among smaller cities, while rate differences for larger cities were minimal. Differences in homicide estimates between the NVSS and SHR are due to the definition of homicides, reporting practices, and identification of the location of homicides. The determination of location of homicides for cities is an issue with NVSS data, and subsequent analyses determined the magnitude of this problem. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper applies recent developments in comparative cultural sociology to the problem of public opinion on prostitution across nations. Specifically, it tests a hypothesis that variation in the degree of support for prostitution among the world's nations is a consequence of the strength of survivalist culture. That is, the greater the economic insecurity, the greater the intolerance of out groups and nontraditional ideas including the acceptability of prostitution. Methods: data are from the second wave of the World Values Survey. They are based on 39,765 interviews conducted on representative samples in each of 36 nations. Interviewing was performed by the World Gallop Organization. An index of survivalist culture is taken from previous work in comparative cultural sociology (Inglehart 1990;2000). The acceptability of prostitution is measured by the extent to which individuals approved of prostitution (1=always wrong through 10=always right). Controls are incorporated from social learning theory, control theory, strain theory, and demographic variables. Results. A bi-level linear model found that individual level survivalist culture was the single most important predictor of prostitution acceptability. The mean level of survivalist culture in a nation also had a significant bearing on individual level approval of prostitution. Conclusions. The investigation is the first to apply a major development in comparative cultural sociology to the specific problem of prostitution acceptability. Individuals in nations with relatively high in survivalist culture are less approving of suicide. These nations tend to be the less developed nations, as predicted. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the pathways into serious, violent and chronic offending across race and gender in a large sample of youth referred to the juvenile department in a metropolitan county in Texas. Building on the literature on gender-specific risk factors in offending, this study specifically analyzes the impact of abuse, mental health problems, running away, gang involvement and juvenile justice involvement for serious, violent and chronic offending in a group of deviant youth. The results indicate that mental health problems, running away, gang involvement and prior juvenile justice involvement are positively related to serious, violent and chronic offending for both male and female youth, while abuse appears to be unrelated to serious, violent, and chronic offending for both genders. However, the predictive power of these four risk factors varies across race and ethnicity within gender. Overall, the findings show that these risk factors better predict minority youths' serious, violent and chronic offending than white youths'. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are about 400 police shootings per year which result in death. Out of this approximate number, 98% of the fatalities are male; 53% fall between the ages of 18 and 30 years old; 56% are white and 42% are black. The number of young black males and young white males is equal at 16%. This paper examines possible antecedents to the shoot/no shoot decision and also examines elements that might cause contagion, or mass reflexive shootings. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The standard account of the history of corrections and punishment, as reflected in most corrections textbooks, skips haphazardly across cultures and centuries, often mentioning Hammurabi, Draco and Jeremy Bentham in rapid succession. Such an account is both ahistorical and atheoretical. In this paper I argue that Norbert Elias's (2000) concept of the civilizing process offers a theoretical framework for understanding the development of modern correctional theory and practice. In particular, the civilizing process offers a useful framework for understanding the diminishing American usage of the death penalty since the 1930s. Elias's theory, which he began developing in 1939, is a forerunner of social construction theory, and I conclude by considering the utility of the social constructionist framework for understanding both the past and present functioning of the correctional system. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reformation and enhancement of police operations and organizations are predicated on key individuals providing effective leadership. Changes both small and large in scope require that someone provide the initiative to articulate a vision and muster the personnel and resources necessary to bring it to fruition. Critical views of police organizations, as well as bureaucracy in general, challenge the idea that leadership is likely to emerge from the structural and cultural milieu characterizing these environs. Using survey data collected from police supervisors attending the FBI National Academy (NA), this paper examines the perceived barriers to effective leadership in policing. Among the criteria used to select NA participants is the belief they are "up and comers" within their home agency. The data offers a number of key insights because respondents come from a range of agencies across the country, offering an approximation of a national study of police leadership. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to describe a behavior modification system which was developed for a residential group home in the rural south. The group home housed five boys between the ages of 14 and 18. The boys are all wards of the state and have histories of multiple placements in foster homes, residential facilities, and psychiatric hospitals. All boys in the home have been involved in the juvenile justice system. The boys were displaying problem behaviors in the home which ranged from failure to complete household chores to fighting. The housemother was interested in implementing a behavior modification system that would reduce the boys' problem behaviors. In the summer of 2005, Job Card Grounding with a reinforcement component was introduced in the home, and the boys' behavior problems were dramatically reduced. Treatment integrity was not maintained, and the boys' problem behaviors returned. In the summer of 2006, the plan was re-implemented, and there was, once again, a dramatic reduction in problem behaviors. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The National Center for State Courts and the National Center for Juvenile Justice collaborated to investigate different models of blended sentencing of juvenile offenders. Specifically, a juvenile-inclusive blend was investigated in Ohio and a criminal-inclusive blend was examined in Vermont. The paper describes the frequency of use of blended sentencing in these states as well as the factors influencing the use of blended sentences. Implications for the the policy and practice of the blended sentencing in both states as well as nationally will be discussed. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several highly publicized child abduction murders have created a wave of public panic over the safety of America's children. Child abduction murders have influenced our laws and formed the rationale for many policies and procedures in social services and law enforcement. Even though the incidences of these occurrences are rare, their impact has a disproportionately large influence on society. The public outcry over concern for the safety of America's children resulted in inflated and unsubstantiated numbers of missing children. To compound the tragedy, child abduction murders are incredibly difficult to solve and deeply impact the law enforcement officials involved in the investigation. The historical background of child abduction murders, the social implications of these crimes, their impact on public policy, and their impact on investigators are all important factors in understanding the impact of the victimization of child abduction murders. This paper will review the historical impact of child abduction murders on American laws and public policy and other social implications of the victimization of children by child abduction murderers as well as present empirical evidence on the incidence of child abduction murders. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our knowledge of offense patterns over the life-course has increased sharply in recent years. There are now detailed datasets following young people to adulthood, as well as statistical methods created to do justice to these datasets. However, women and girls have largely been absent from this burst of knowledge. Most studies include only boys and men, and even when girls and women are included, their numbers are often too small for detailed analysis. In addition, the length of followup history is usually short, to age 40 at the oldest. This may confound analysis by gender. For example, if the life-course pattern of some women began in their 30s and ended in their 60s, we would need to follow them through their sixties in order to describe accurately their life-span trajectory. Fortunately, there exists a dataset with a large number of women and men that follows people to age 80, the Criminal Career and Life-course Study (CCLS). This paper presents analysis of life-course offending patterns of 424 girls and women, compared to 4191 boys and men, in the CCLS. Sampled from all 1977 CJ contacts in the Netherlands and followed prospectively from 1977 to 2003 and retrospectively to their initial CJ contact, the CCLS includes data on each CJ contact from age 12 through age 72 (given age in 1977), as well as basic data on social characteristics over time. We describe patterns of onset, frequency and offense type changes over the lifespan, career duration, and desistance. We then discuss implications of these findings for developmental and life-course theory. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nearly Fifteen years have passed since the US Supreme Court in RAV v. City of St. Paul 112 S. Ct. 2538 (1992) struck down the Minnesota hate crime ordinance that sought to proscribe the use of historical symbols of hate on grounds that such symbols violated victim's constitutional rights protected by the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Although the Court remedied some of the problem by affirming penalty enhancing statutes for hate conduct, it ignored the importance of assessing the unique and deleterious consequences of hate crime victimization as a compelling governmental interest worthy of equal protection consideration. This paper illuminates the severity of hate crime consequences and the messages from hate offenders to both direct and vicarious victims. Hate crime victimizations are unlike other victim perpetrated crimes in that the injuries are significantly more brutal and secondary effects of victimizations cause ripple effects that divide our communities. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Moral Kombat is an ethics based restorative justice program run by the First Tennessee Human Resource Agency. Initially, the program focused on character education and ethical behavior training for older, troubled, at-risk youth. Moral Kombat has expanded to include training in parenting, emotion control, life skills, dealing with drug and alcohol abuse, and a program to combat theft, shoplifting, and bad check writing. It has also expanded to include adults as well as adolescents.Data were collected on approximately 450 youths who were in the Moral Kombat program from July 1, 2003 through June 30, 2004. The paper presents results (new charges), including a comparison by gender and comparisons with similar juvenile programs. Implications for juvenile justice and for future research are presented. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing ethnoracial diversity in criminal justice-related occupations has long been considered a potential remedy to real and perceived inequality in justice administration, including racial disparities in sentencing. Studies of diversity in the federal judiciary yield contradictory results on the degree to which race and other status characteristics affect judicial orientations and decisions. While no studies simultaneously consider diversity among non-judicial court actors, the workgroup may be the appropriate unit of analysis for assessing the substantive significance of diversity in justice administration. This paper considers how ethnoracial diversity among federal judges and prosecutors relates to differences in federal sentencing outcomes. Combining court organizational, contextual and sentencing data for 90 federal districts we analyze how variable levels of workgroup diversity relate to district-level differences in sentencing, and particularly racial disparities in sentence severity. We find workgroup diversity affects both sentence outcomes generally and racial disparities in sentencing particularly. Implications for future research and policy are considered. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we discuss the philosophy of parens patriae with respect to juvenile offenders, particularly those who are committed and serving a sentence within the juvenile correctional system. We discuss connections between the philosophies of parens patriae and rehabilitation, and we examine staff issues in the role of parental surrogate. In particular, we discuss research on adolescent development and parenting styles which promote positive development. Recommendations are made for further research on surrogate parenting styles employed by staff of correctional programs as well as staff recruitment, screening, training, and supervision. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we discuss and address two broad criticisms of the differential association tradition in criminology. First, differential association theory has been criticized for failing to specify how a person's associations lead to the learning of delinquent behavior. This ambiguity is addressed by social learning theory, which proposes that individuals learn through a process of differential reinforcement. However, empirical research has not documented the value of differential reinforcement - tapped with measures of anticipated parent and peer disapproval for delinquency - for understanding delinquency. We posit that this may be because anticipated disapproval of delinquency by significant others may assuage delinquency only among youths who value their relationships with these significant others. This proposition attends to Kornhauser's (1978) criticism that differential association theory fails to account for human agency by positing that individuals may choose to ignore anticipated disapproval for delinquency if they are not close to the source of this disapproval. We test our proposed interaction between anticipated disapproval for delinquency and attachments to the sources of this disapproval using OLS regression and the National Youth Survey. Our statistical analyses provide partial support for our argument, thereby offering an avenue for further development of the differential association/social learning tradition. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the latter half of the twentieth century the radical environmental movement took a turn toward more extreme acts of criminality, including widespread acts of property destruction and arson. Yet radical environmentalists ostensibly think of the themselves as "good people" who resort to criminality only because there is an environmental crisis. As such, neutralization theory may be an appropriate framework for analysis. This paper will examine the statements and writings of radical environmentalists to assess the extent to which they use techniques of neutralization to justify their behaviors. Applying neutralization theory to ideologically-motivated crime is significant because it could provide illumination on a central debate within the neutralization theory literature: do cognitions that justify deviant behaviors precede the criminal act? A content analysis of documents containing authentic statements from environmental radicals will be conducted. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In response to a growing concern about racially or ethnically motivated violence, majority of states government have enacted substantive hate crime law or sentence enhancements against such offenses. Each state has distinct statute that varies on the type of biases such as race, gender, age, sexual orientation, religion, and disability status. Yet little is known about the etiology and epidemiology of this phenomenon in part because its defining characteristics have yet to be identified and conceptualized. In this regard, this paper is an attempt to describe the emergence of hate crime legislation in a comprehensive historical and social context, to develop a social constructionist perspective in order to fully understand the structure of American society and applications of hate crime legislation, and to offer a template for future research to explore the nature of hate crimes and the effectiveness of the government response to hate crime events. Finally, we discuss policy implications for hate crimes focusing on preventive strategies through informal social control, rather than reactive strategies through formal social control. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In practical criminological research, we often criticize our two major measurements for broad crime trends: the UCR and the NCVS. Both series, however, can be though of as measurements for the same underlying signal, or the true crime rate. In this paper, I use state-space modeling to extract the underlying true crime signal from the UCR and the NCVS. Using the Kalman filter and Kalman smoother, maximum likelihood estimation yields estimates of the underlying crime signal. Given these results, traditional predictors of the UCR and NCVS rates can then be used to contrast and compare their effects on the true crime rate. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historically, discussions of crime and punishment have focused on an individual lawbreaker and the institutions charged with monitoring and sanctioning him (or, more recently, her). However, over the last decade this scope has widened, with scholars increasingly turning their attention to the impact of incarceration on inmates' family, friends, and neighborhoods. In this paper, I draw on ethnographic fieldwork, in-depth interviews, and survey research conducted with women visiting their partners at northern California's San Quentin State Prison to examine the repercussive effects of maintaining a relationship with a man behind bars. Through their efforts to "do time" with their incarcerated partners, legally innocent women come into close contact with the penal facility and as a result are obliged to comply with the institutional regulation of their appearance and comportment when they are at the penitentiary and to permit correctional supervision and censorship within their homes. Returning to the classic theories of Donald Clemmer's prisonization and Gresham Sykes' pains of imprisonment, I argue that the female partners of inmates undergo "secondary prisonization," a less potent but still powerful form of socialization to carceral norms brought about by prolonged subjection to the surveillance, control, and dictates of the correctional institution. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historically, delinquent girls have been ignored by both researchers and practitioners. The gender-specific needs of delinquent youth have become an important concern and ongoing research reveals that delinquent girls differ from boys in their types of offending, life experiences, and treatment needs. Gender-specific programs have been developed to serve offending girls, but many of these programs have not been evaluated to determine their impact. Additionally, the extent to which these programs are tailored to meet specific needs of delinquent girls, or how these programs incorporate such needs into their curricula, is not always clear. These gaps in the literature provide opportunity for any researcher but are particularly suited for feminist research. This paper will report on findings of research conducted with adolescent females who are residing in a girls-only detention center and participating in a once-weekly, equine-assisted psychotherapy program. Through the adoption of a feminist research perspective, utilizing a feminist, ethnographic approach in which data was collected through participant observation, focus groups, and one-on-one interviews, the current research explores the reciprocal relationships between the program and the participating girls, their relationships with peers and staff members, and their experiences in their detention center. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

General Strain Theory (GST) argues that strain (i.e., stress) leads to negative emotion and that negative emotion leads to criminal behavior. Though GST has received a significant amount of empirical support, very few studies have investigated gender differences in emotional reactions to strain and gender differences in the likelihood of criminal responses to emotion. This paper therefore asks the following research question: Do emotional reactions to strain and behavioral reactions to emotion differ by gender? Literature from the social psychology of emotion is used to develop hypotheses which are tested through a vignette study. Results suggest that gender differences in emotional reactions to strain are key in understanding gender differences in criminal behavior. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

General Strain Theory (GST) argues that strain (i.e., stress) leads to negative emotion and that negative emotion leads to criminal behavior. Though GST has received a significant amount of empirical support, tests of GST have focused primarily on the relationship between stress, anger, and interpersonal aggression. Past GST research has therefore neglected the idea that different types of strain might produce different negative emotions aside from anger and that different negative emotions might produce different types of criminal involvement aside from interpersonal aggression. This paper asks the following research questions: Do different types of strain produce different types of negative emotion? Do different types of negative emotion lead to different types of criminal behavior? Literature from the social psychology of emotion is used to develop hypotheses which are tested through a vignette study. Results indicate that certain situations produce certain emotions more so than others, but that negative emotions often co-occur. Some negative emotions precipitate criminal involvement, while others inhibit criminal tendencies. Results thus suggest that emotional reactions to strain are key in understanding the likelihood and type of consequent criminal act. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender is one of the most fundamental constructs in human existence. Gender has influenced every culture, at every level of social organization, throughout history. Because of the pervasive influence and conceptual complexity of Gender as a construct, individuals have attempted to explain it from multiple perspectives (i.e., the biological, psychological, cultural, and social perspectives). Despite the recognized complexity of Gender as a construct, when each of these perspectives is offered, it tends to be presented as a complete explanation. However, each of these perspectives likely offers only a partial truth concerning the true nature of Gender. The recognition of the true but partial nature of these perspectives is essential as it indicates that each should be considered in some form when trying to address the full complexity of Gender. However, it also makes clear that none of these different aspects of Gender should be privileged above any other. This paper develops a broader and deeper conceptualization of Gender than those which have been typically applied, that honors the strengths and limitations of each of the perspectives discussed above. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For several decades, youth gangs have been a focus for both the media as well as for a high priority for law enforcement efforts in urban, suburban, and rural areas. Because of their menacing image, gangs can engender enormous fear in citizens. However, in many communities, gangs are enshrouded in myths that complicate the determination of appropriate community responses. To assist communities in combating them, this paper illuminates numerous gang myths and contrasts them with research-based realities. It concludes with implications and recommendations for community—including juvenile court—responses to gangs. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Financial exploitation is one of the most common forms of elder abuse, which has become more widely recognized as life spans increase and the U.S. population continues to age. It may co-occur or exist as a prelude to physical abuse. Financial crimes against the elderly, however, are not widely reported due to family embarrassment and/or lack of social awareness. Even when the crimes are reported, law enforcement officials are unfamiliar with how to investigate and prosecute these specialized cases, and arrests and prosecutions are rare. This paper provides a practical manual for law enforcement and prosecutors to identify, investigate, and successfully prosecute cases of financial exploitation against the elderly. The investigation and prosecution of crimes involving financial exploitation against the elderly are like the prosecution of most larceny cases or other crimes. Solid investigation makes the case. The difference is that financial exploitation are crimes of opportunity and the victims are very vulnerable. Coordination between law enforcement, prosecutors, relatives and APS is essential. Alternatives to criminal prosecution include civil recovery by parties in interest, APS intervention and preventative activity which protects society's most vulnerable victims. Often small cases are really the tip pf the iceberg. Police, prosecutors and members of the community should be trained to recognize, report, investigate, and prosecute cases involving financial exploitation of the elderly. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Female offenders are one of the fastest growing segments in the juvenile justice system, and likewise, have become a focal issue for researchers and policy makers alike. Although the majority of juvenile arrestees has always been male, the proportion of females has been increasing. In 1975, girls represented 15% of juvenile arrests. In 1990, they represented 19% and fifteen years later, they were nearly a third. Additionally, juvenile court and custody data show a similar trend. Girls comprise over one quarter of all delinquency cases, up 92% since 1985. By the turn of the century, girls constituted nearly one-fifth of detention populations. Through an examination of 271 case files of juvenile probationers, this study explores social predictors of detention, as it examines gender differences in offense histories as well as family, abuse, drug use, academic, and mental health backgrounds. Overall, it investigates three primary questions: 1) What risk factors differentiate female juvenile probationers who have never been to detention from girls who have had at least one detention home stay? 2) Similarly, what risk factors separate the boys? 3) And lastly, what gender differences exist in the profile of the juvenile detainee? The paper concludes with case file stories that illustrate the major findings. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Empirical research examining channels of communication capable of spreading knowledge of innovative programs is lacking. Instead, research has typically focused on the factors that give rise to the need for organizational change rather than factors that influence the content of that change. This paper examines channels used to diffuse innovation by assessing their influence in organizational change, situating them within an institutional theory framework. These channels—journals and government publications, accreditation criteria, other agencies, grants, community and government pressures, academic courses/seminars, and professional associations—are studied within the context of community policing reforms. Using existing data collected from over 440 local law enforcement agencies, the relative importance of communication channels is assessed along with commonly studied factors of organizational change. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emile Durkheim posited a "functionalist" sociological approach to criminality, in that criminals and crime were said to serve a useful or functional purpose to the ongoing organisms of society. Other critical theorists, including Marx, examined this issue, but only superficially—and always from a sociological perspective. The thesis of this paper is that criminality is not only a necessary element to the structure of society—more importantly, it is historically the eminent measure by which individual uniqueness may be existentially articulated; thus criminality offers for us a functional philosophical explanation of the indestructibility of phenomenological human singularity. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During democratic transitions in post-conflict situations, safety and security are major concerns. Increased levels of crime and disorder may exceed the ability of the police to maintain order, especially if the police are expected to develop based on a respect for human rights and democratic values. If the police are given a paramilitary function to fight militias and insurgencies it can easily destroy their legitimacy and create a police culture that does not promote democratic development. It may therefore be necessary to create a unique force that provides security and promotes the transition to democratic development through its unique functions, allowing conventional police forces to develop according to democratic values. This paper theorizes on this unique force, it's roles, and it's relationships with conventional police forces and the citizenry. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Boston University Prison Education Program increased its capacity to enroll prisoner-students without prior college experience in the 2006-2007 academic year. These students are completing a four course sequence of two English courses, a mathematics course and a critical thinking course. This paper examines the challenges and accomplishments faced by teachers and students during the first year program. Data are drawn from interviews with teachers and student program evaluations. A number of themes are seen in these accounts. These include 'missing piece' problems, questions of motivation, study skill development and time prioritization, adjustment to the college classroom environment, and the challenge and satisfaction of developing more abstract ways of thinking about and relating to the world. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although most individuals engage in delinquent behavior at some point over the life course, a small percentage refrain from delinquency entirely. The purpose of this paper is to examine how delinquency abstainers differ from offenders over the life course. Using data from Waves 1-10 of the National Youth Survey Family Study (NYSFS) we test the ability of Moffitt's (1993) developmental taxonomy to differentiate abstainers from offenders based on measures of delinquent peer group bonding, involvement in prosocial activities, dating behavior, social isolation, family and school bonding, socioeconomic status, and demographic variables. In addition to comparing abstainers from all other offenders, we identify distinct offending trajectories using growth mixture modeling (GMM) to compare abstainers with different types of offenders (e.g., life-course persistent and adolescence-limited). Implications for theory and future research will be discussed. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As part of a larger law enforcement survey on Hispanic/Latino gangs survey respondents were asked to differentiate between those gangs having known national affiliations and those gangs that are strictly local in nature; i.e. these gangs do not have documented ties to other gangs outside of the local county unit of government. This paper presents a comparative analysis of these nationally affiliated gangs as well as comparisons between the national and local Hispanic/Latino gangs. Comparisons are also delineated along an urban/rural dichotomy. A total of 118 Hispanic/Latino gangs were reported of which 91 were reputed to be nationally affiliated with, or have connections to, similar gangs outside of the respondents' respective counties and beyond state boundaries. Twenty-three gangs were considered local with no known documented associations or connections to any other gangs either outside of the county or on the national level. Statistically significant differences were found to exist with the Sur-13 gangs being more visible in the community and both the Mexican Mafia and the MS-13 gangs being more mobile. Comparisons between the national and local gangs revealed that the national gangs were significantly larger, more organized and more criminally active than the local gangs. While not approaching statistical significance the local gangs were perceived to be slightly more turf-oriented, visible in the community and more involved in drug-related activities. Urban and rural comparisons suggest that urban Hispanic/Latino gangs are significantly larger in size, more criminally active and more violent than their rural counterparts. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although partner sexual abuse is clearly an important dimension of partner violence, it has received less research attention compared to partner physical and psychological abuse. This paper contributes to the literature by examining similarities and differences in coercive sexual tactics experienced by women who do (n=59) and women who do not (n=151) report forced sex. The women in the sample had all been recently obtained a protective order. Results suggest that both women who do and women who do not report forced sex experience various coercive and degrading tactics within the context of sexual activity. In addition, there is a significant association between all types of sexual coercion and stalking. Results also suggest that multiple sexual abuse dimensions should be considered within the context of partner psychological abuse, physical abuse, and stalking, and that more research on understanding the outcomes associated with dimensions of sexual abuse within the context of physical and psychological abuse is needed. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]