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Rock glaciers are an integral part of the periglacial environment. At the regional scale in the Greater Caucasus, there have been no comprehensive systematic efforts to assess the distribution of rock glaciers, although some individual parts of ranges have been mapped before. In this study we produce the first inventory of rock glaciers from the entire Greater Caucasus region—Russia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan. A remote sensing survey was conducted using Geo-Information System (GIS) and Google Earth Pro software based on high-resolution satellite imagery—SPOT, Worldview, QuickBird, and IKONOS, based on data obtained during the period 2004–2021. Sentinel-2 imagery from the year 2020 was also used as a supplementary source. The ASTER GDEM (2011) was used to determine location, elevation, and slope for all rock glaciers. Using a manual approach to digitize rock glaciers, we discovered that the mountain range contains 1461 rock glaciers with a total area of 297.8 ± 23.0 km2. Visual inspection of the morphology suggests that 1018 rock glaciers with a total area of 199.6 ± 15.9 km2 (67% of the total rock glacier area) are active, while the remaining rock glaciers appear to be relict. The average maximum altitude of all rock glaciers is found at 3152 ± 96 m above sea level (a.s.l.) while the mean and minimum altitude are 3009 ± 91 m and 2882 ± 87 m a.s.l., respectively. We find that the average minimum altitude of active rock glaciers is higher (2955 ± 98 m a.s.l.) than in relict rock glaciers (2716 ± 83 m a.s.l.). No clear difference is discernible between the surface slope of active (41.4 ± 3°) and relict (38.8 ± 4°) rock glaciers in the entire mountain region. This inventory provides a database for understanding the extent of permafrost in the Greater Caucasus and is an important basis for further research of geomorphology and palaeoglaciology in this region. The inventory will be submitted to the Global Land Ice Measurements from Space (GLIMS) database and can be used for future studies.

From 1965 to 2000 glacial geomorphology became increasingly specialized and developed significantly due to technological improvements, particularly in remote sensing, surveying and field-based glaciological process studies. The better understanding of basal thermal regimes in ice sheets and glaciers led to the development of concepts such as spatial and temporal migration of ice divides in dynamic ice sheets that could overprint subglacial landform assemblages, debris entrainment processes related to polythermal glacier systems, and glacier and ice sheet beds composed of cold and warm based mosaics. Process observations at the ice–bed interface led to the discovery of the third glacier flow mechanism, substrate deformation, which provided the impetus to reconstruct the genesis of subglacial bedforms such as drumlins and to evaluate the origins and potential flow law for till. Numerical evaluations of glacial erosion led to a better understanding of abrasion and quarrying as well as the erection of genetic models and erosion rates for larger-scale features such as U-shaped valleys and cirques. Linkages were made between debris transport pathways and moraine construction in supraglacial environments, with the role of glacier structure being linked to specific landforms, such as medial, lateral, hummocky and ice-cored moraines as well as rock glaciers. Our appreciation of the erosional and depositional impacts of glacifluvial systems was enhanced significantly with the advent of process observations on the hydrology of modern glaciers as well as the final vindication of J.H. Bretz and his proposed jökulhlaup origins of the Channelled Scablands and the Missoula Floods. In addition to the increasing numbers of studies at modern glacier snouts, the embracing of sedimentology by glacial geomorphologists was to result in significant developments in understanding the process-form regimes of subglacial, marginal and proglacial landforms, particularly the recognition of landform continua and hybrids. Advances resulting from this included the recognition of different modes of moraine and glacitectonic thrust mass development, lithofacies models of the varied glacifluvial depositional environments, and the initial expansion of work on the sediments and depocentres of glacimarine settings, the latter being the result of glacial research taking to submersibles and ice-strengthened ships for the first time. A similarly new frontier was the expansion of research on the increasingly higher resolution images returning from Mars, where extraterrestrial glaciations were recognized based on comparisons with Earth analogues. Holistic appreciations of glaciation signatures using landform assemblages were developed, initially as process-form models and later as glacial landsystems, providing an ever-expanding set of templates for reconstructing palaeoglaciology in the wide variety of topographic and environmental settings, which also acknowledge spatial and temporal change in glacier and ice sheet systems.

As a contribution to the palaeoenvironmental history reconstruction of the Alpine periglacial domain, this study focuses on the Schmidt hammer exposure-age dating (SHD) of (peri-)glacial landforms using rebound-value (R-value) calibrations for 10 stations in the Scaradra glacier forefield (north-eastern part of the Ticino Canton, Lepontine Alps) and for 13 stations in the Splügenpass region (located between Switzerland and Italy, Rhaetian Alps). Linear calibration based on the known age of several moraines of the Scaradra glacier assessed by historical cartography allowed the reconstruction of the glacier fluctuations around the end of the Little Ice Age. Timing of deglaciation and of rock glacier development was defined in the Splügenpass region using the calibration of exposure ages based on two mule tracks built in 300 CE and 1250 CE, respectively. Discussion on R-value analysis and calibration improves the knowledge on the potential use of SHD for numerical-age dating in Alpine geomorphological studies.

Rock glaciers are a prominent component of many alpine landscapes and constitute a significant water resource in some arid mountain environments. Here, we employ satellite-based interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) between 2016 and 2019 to identify and monitor active and transitional rock glaciers in the Uinta Mountains (Utah, USA), an area of ∼3000 km2. We used mean velocity maps to generate an inventory for the Uinta Mountains containing 205 active and transitional rock glaciers. These rock glaciers are 11.9 ha in area on average and located at a mean elevation of 3308 m, where mean annual air temperature is −0.25 ∘C. The mean downslope velocity for the inventory is 1.94 cm yr−1, but individual rock glaciers have velocities ranging from 0.35 to 6.04 cm yr−1. To search for relationships with climatic drivers, we investigated the time-dependent motion of three rock glaciers. We found that rock glacier motion has a significant seasonal component, with rates that are more than 5 times faster during the late summer compared to the rest of the year. Rock glacier velocities also appear to be correlated with the snow water equivalent of the previous winter's snowpack. Our results demonstrate the ability to use satellite InSAR to monitor rock glaciers over large areas and provide insight into the environmental factors that control their kinematics.

Le glacier rocheux de Chanrouge situé en dans le Parc national de la Vanoise est un bon exemple des grandes accumulations de bocs développées après la disparition des nappes de glace du Quaternaire. Cette langue de débris longue de 700 m occupe le fond d’un vallon. Son lobe terminal se situe vers 2400 m alors qu’elle se développe sous une haute paroi calcaire culminant à 3055 m. Elle est probablement héritière d’un petit glacier décrépi à la fin du Tardiglaciaire et enseveli sous des masses écroulées. Elle est toujours affectée par une dynamique périglaciaire provoquée par le pergélisol. Les rides et sillions au tracé arqué traduisent les déformations de la surface. Located in the Vanoise National Park, the Chanrouge rock-glacier is a good example of active periglacial features. This 700 m long block accumulation was developed at the end of lateglacial readvance from a small decaying glacier. Coarse debris were provided by large collapsed parts of steep rockwall of Aiguille des Corneillets (3055 m). The block lobe is ending by 2400 m. In spite of its low altitude, this rock-glacier offers evidence for slight movement, both in its arcuate ridges and from image interferometric treatments.

International audience; Accurately assessing landform evolution and quantifying rapid environmental changes are gaining importance in the context of monitoring techniques in alpine environments. In the European Alps, glaciers and rock glaciers are among the most characteristic cryospheric components bearing long and systematic monitoring periods. The acceleration in rock glacier velocities and the onset of destabilization processes, mainly since 1990, have raised several concerns due to the potential effects on the high alpine natural and anthropic environments. This study presents a combination of uncrewed aerial vehicle (UAV) and terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) surveys for monitoring the current changes on the quickly accelerating, destabilised Tsarmine rock glacier in the Arolla Valley, Western Swiss Alps, delivering a considerable volume of debris to a steep torrential gully. High-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) and orthomosaics are derived from UAV image series combined with structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry techniques. Multitemporal orthomosaics are employed for measuring spatially continuous rock glacier kinematics using image matching algorithms. Superficial displacements are evaluated with simultaneous in-situ differential global navigation satellite system (GNSS) measurements. Elevation and volume changes are computed from TLS and UAV-derived DEMs at similar periods. Between June 2017 and September 2019, both datasets showed a similar elevation change pattern and surface thinning rates of 0.15 ± 0.04 and 0.16 ± 0.03 m yr −1 , respectively. Downward of a rupture zone developing about 150 m above the front, the rock glacier doubled its overall velocity during the study period, from around 5 m yr −1 between October 2016 and June 2017 to more than 10 m yr −1 between June and September 2019. The kinematic information reveals striking differences in the velocity between the lower and upper rock glacier sections. The monitoring approach based on close-sensing techniques provides accurate surface velocity and volume change information, allowing an enhanced description of the current rock glacier dynamics and its surface expression.

Recently published work on water preservation in Chile assume that 'permafrost' (cryogenic) rock glaciers are dominant. Melt pond development shows that rock glaciers are glacier-derived ('glacigenic') rather than of permafrost origin.

Synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR) measurements demonstrate that lobate, blocky depositional landforms, located in southern Norway at an altitude of ~530 m above sea level, with an estimated mean annual air temperature of ~1.6°C, currently exhibit deformation attributed to viscous creep. Five years of InSAR measurements for six lobes demonstrate average surface velocities of 1.2–22.0 mm/year with maximum rates of 17.5–55.6 mm/year. New Schmidt-hammer exposure-age dating (SHD) of two proximal lobes reveals mid-Holocene ages (7.6 ± 1.3 ka and 6.0 ± 1.2 ka), which contrast with the early-Holocene SHD and 10Be ages obtained previously from distal lobes, and late-Holocene SHD ages presented here from two adjacent talus slopes (2.3 ± 1.0 ka and 2.4 ± 1.0 ka). Although passive transport of boulders on the surfaces of these small, slow-moving rock glaciers affected by compressive flow means that the exposure ages are close to minimum estimates of the time elapsed since lobe inception, disturbance of boulders on rock glaciers is a source of potentially serious underestimates of rock-glacier age. Rock-glacier development at Øyberget began shortly after local deglaciation around 10 ka before present and continued throughout the Holocene in response to microclimatic undercooling within the coarse blocky surface layer of the talus and rock-glacier lobes. We suggest this enhanced cooling lowers mean annual surface-layer temperature by at least ~3.6°C, which is needed at such a low altitude to sustain sporadic permafrost and avoid fast thawing as atmospheric temperatures rise. Our results point to circumstances where inferences about rock glaciers as indicators of regional climate should be interpreted with caution, and where they may be less useful in palaeoclimatic reconstruction than previously thought.

In this study we present the Portland State University Active Rock Glacier Inventory (n=10 332) for the contiguous United States, derived from the manual classification of remote sensing imagery (Johnson, 2020; https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.918585). Individually, these active rock glaciers are found across widely disparate montane environments, but their overall distribution unambiguously favors relatively high, arid mountain ranges with sparse vegetation. While at least one active rock glacier is identified in each of the 11 westernmost states, nearly 88 % are found in just five states: Colorado (n=3889), Montana (n=1813), Idaho (n=1689), Wyoming (n=839), and Utah (n=834). Mean active rock glacier area is estimated at 0.10 km2, with cumulative active rock glacier area totaling 1004.05 km2. Active rock glaciers are assigned to a three-tier classification system based on area thresholds and surface characteristics known to correlate with downslope movement. Class 1 features (n=7042, average area = 0.12 km2) appear to be highly active, Class 2 features (n=2415, average area = 0.05 km2) appear to be intermediately active, and Class 3 features (n=875, average area = 0.04 km2) appear to be minimally active. This geospatial inventory will allow past active rock glacier research findings to be spatially extrapolated, help facilitate further active rock glacier research by identifying field study sites, and serve as a valuable training set for the development of automated rock glacier identification and classification methods applicable to other large regional studies.

This paper presents a detailed rock glacier and protalus rampart inventory from Las Salinas river basin, an arid subtropical mountain hydrological system (between 31°02’ and 31°22’ S latitude) located in the northern sector of the Central Andes of Argentina, where permafrost and cryogenic processes prevail. The inventory is based on a geomorphological characterization by means of optical remote sensing and field description data. The study region covers 630 km2, with 3.25% of the area containing 405±8.2 rock glaciers and protalus ramparts in total, of which 231±2.5 are considered protalus rampart and 49±2 are considered active, 61±1 inactive and 64±3 fossil rock glaciers. Frequency ratio and logistic regression were used as statistical methods to determine the relationship between the distribution of these periglacial landforms and different geological, morphometric and climatic variables as elevation, potential incoming solar radiation, slope, aspect and lithology. Results show that elevation, lithology, and aspect are the most influencing factors for the occurrence of active rock glaciers. According to rock glaciers and protalus ramparts distribution, the permafrost occurrence probability is above 3690 m a.s.l. (current and high periglacial environment). However, some inactive rock glaciers and protalus rampart were found below this elevation, thus between 3300 and 3690 m a.s.l. the landscapes are dominated by an unstable periglacial environment.

The cryosphere (i.e. glaciers and permafrost) and its related landforms offer a wide range of ecosystem services, thus they have strong relationships with human population. Even if these harsh environments have often been regarded as inhospitable, there is a growing amount of literature on glacial biodiversity, specifically concerning European mountains. Glaciers and permafrost-related landforms (e.g. rock glaciers) host a variety of cold-adapted taxa, from bacteria to vertebrates. They have been included in the Natura 2000 network, specifically in the habitat type: Permanent Glaciers (code 8340), but their biodiversity is still poorly known. Even if local extinctions and population reductions of cold-adapted species due to glacier and permafrost shrinking have been already documented, none of the species living in this habitat type are listed in the Habitat Directive Annexes. With this commentary, we call for urgent actions for an ecological characterization of this habitat type in order to plan monitoring and management of the biodiversity hosted by them. An increased knowledge of this no longer permanent habitat appears particularly urgent, because it is not replaceable and is likely to go extinct in the next decades.

The presence of buried glacial ice and putative extinct rock glaciers in Mars’ equatorial regions has implications for understanding its climate history and sensitivity to changes in insolation and has significant implications for past global redistribution of the water ice cryosphere. We quantify the morphology of rock glacier- “like” features on the northern slopes of Aeolis Mons (known also as Mount Sharp) within Gale crater and use this information to evaluate a possible rock glacier origin for these forms. Detailed morphometric evaluation of cross and long profiles of these lobate features, which exhibit higher slopes at their heads, lower slopes at their distal edge, and a convex upward cross-sectional profile and oversteepened sides, resembles active terrestrial rock glaciers. However, the absence of a chevron wrinkle pattern and sublimation features could indicate extensive aeolian reworking and the lack of deflation could indicate a higher rock to ice mixture. The lack of cratering surfaces relative to the cratered surfaces that they overly could indicate a younger age and are possibly indistinguishable in age from the capping units of Mount Sharp, which may have once been more laterally extensive and may have been the source of these mass wasting forms.

The fronts of two rock glaciers located in South Tyrol (Italian Alps) failed on 13 August 2014, initiating debris flows in their downslope channels. A multimethod approach including climate, meteorological, and ground temperature data analysis, aerial image correlation, as well as geotechnical testing and modeling, led to the reconstruction of the two events. An integrated investigation of static predisposing factors, slowly changing preparatory factors, and potential triggering events shed light on the most likely reasons for such failures. Our results suggest that the occurrence of front destabilization at the two rock glaciers can only partly be explained by the occurrence of heavy rainfall events. Indeed, antecedent hydrological and thermal ground conditions were characterized by a saturated active layer favored by a snow-rich winter and extensive precipitation in late spring and summer. Also, the rising trend of air temperature during spring and summer months since 1950s might explain the concurrent marked displacement of the two rock glaciers. Indeed, geotechnical investigations have provided strong indications that one of the investigated rock glacier fronts was at a marginally stable state prior to 2014. As rainfall events more intense than the one that occurred in August 2014 were previously recorded in the same area without resulting failures at the studied rock glaciers, we propose that both predisposing and preparatory destabilizing factors have played a key role in the 2014 rock glacier front failures.

A comprehensive description of the glaciation and glacial geomorphology of the Harmukh range, northwest Himalaya is reported first time in this study. The geomorphic system of the range is dominated by glaciation and provides an excellent opportunity to assess the glacial fluctuations from the Late Quaternary to the present. Using a time series of the satellite data from 1992 to 2018, the glacier area, snout and equilibrium line altitude (ELA) changes of the existing glaciers in the Harmukh Range were estimated. The glacier cover has receded from 7.47 ± 0.58 km2 in 1992 to 6.24 ± 0.62 km2 in 2018, a deglaciation of 16.46 ± 0.24%. The glaciers showed an upward shift in ELA from 47 m to 80 m during the last two and a half decade. The observations revealed that, other than the climatic factors, the ELA change and glacier recessions are influenced by the glacier size, mean altitude, and the aspect of the glaciers. Further, the high-resolution Google Earth images, supplemented by field observations, were used for mapping various glacial-geomorphic landforms. The nature of glacial grooves, overdeepenings, the height of the lateral moraine deposits and trimlines indicated appreciable thickness of the former glaciers. The pattern of the glaciated valleys revealed that the area has predominantly experienced alpine type of glaciation with most of the glaciers centred on the Harmukh peak. Based on the shape and the number of lateral moraine ridges present, it is suggested that the area has witnessed three major glacial advances. By tracing the outer limits of the glacial valleys, moraine boulders, and ice scoured terrain, it was estimated that the glaciers in the range covered 629 km2 during the glacial maxima. The presence of numerous rock glaciers and debris-free cirque glaciers on the north-eastern slopes of the range indicated a strong climatic and topographical control on the pattern, situation and extent of glaciers. However, there is a need for detailed field-based mapping of the glacial-geomorphology and geochronological study in order to better understand the nature and extent of paleo-glaciation, the observed glacier recession and the past climatic variations in this hitherto understudied glaciated region of the Kashmir Himalaya.

Topographic change at a given location usually results from multiple processes operating over different timescales. However, interpretations of surface change are often based upon single values of movement, measured over a specified time period or in a single direction. This work presents a method to help separate surface change types that occur at different timescales related to the deformation of an active rock glacier, drawing on terrestrial lidar monitoring at sub-monthly intervals. To this end, we derive 3D topographic changes across the Äußeres Hochebenkar rock glacier in the Ötztal Alps. These changes are presented as the relative contribution of surface change during a 3-week period (2018) to the annual surface change (2017–2018). They are also separated according to the spatially variable direction perpendicular to the local rock glacier surface (using point cloud distance computation) and a single main direction of rock glacier flow, indicated by movement of individual boulders. In a 1500 m2 sample area in the lower tongue section of the rock glacier, the contribution of the 3-week period to the annual change perpendicular to the surface is 20 %, compared with 6 % in the direction of rock glacier flow. Viewing change in this way, our approach provides estimates of surface change in different directions that are dominant at different times of the year. Our results demonstrate the benefit of more frequent lidar monitoring and, critically, the requirement for novel approaches to quantifying and disaggregating surface change, as a step towards rock glacier observation networks focusing on the analysis of 3D surface change over time.

Aim of this paper is to provide the first comprehensive synthesis about ground beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) distribution in high altitude habitats. Specifically, the attention is focused on the species assemblages living on the most common ice-related mountain landforms (glaciers, debris-covered glaciers, glacier forelands and rock glaciers) and on the challenges, threats and opportunities carabids living in these habitats have to face in relation to the ongoing climate warming. The suggested role of the ice-related alpine landforms, as present climatic refugia for cold-adapted ground beetles, is discussed. Finally, the needs to develop a large-scale High-alpine Biodiversity Monitoring Program to describe how the current climate change is shaping the distribution of high altitude specialists, is highlighted., 6 figures. This is the pre-print version in the non-final form, accepted for publication on Acta Zoologica Hungarica after the editing changes are made

The purpose of this work is to assess the main parameters of the Chukotka and Kolyma glaciers (small forms of glaciation, SFG): their size and volume, and changes therein over time. The point as to whether these SFG can be considered glaciers or are in transition into, for example, rock glaciers is also presented. SFG areas were defined from the early 1980s (data from the catalogue of the glaciers compiled by R.V. Sedov) to 2005, and up to 2017: these data were retrieved from satellite images. The maximum of the SGF reduction occurred in the Chantalsky Range, Iskaten Range, and in the northern part of Chukotka Peninsula. The smallest retreat by this time relates to the glaciers of the southern part of the peninsula. Glacier volumes are determined by the formula of S.A. Nikitin for corrie glaciers, based on in-situ volume measurements, and by our own method: the average glacier thickness is calculated from isogypsum patterns, constructed using DEMs of individual glaciers based on images taken from a drone during field work, and using ArcticDEM for others.

Debris flows originating in the mountain cryosphere (DFMC) are one of the most globally important, widely distributed mass flows (and natural geohazards) in mountain areas with a high altitude and/or high latitude. This is particularly the case in high mountain areas that have been undergoing rapid glacier retreat, permafrost degradation, and other melt/thaw related processes. As a consequence, the actual hazards and potential risks of DFMC have drawn increasing attention in the context of global climate change (i.e. a rising temperature and higher occurrence of strong precipitation events). Unlike debris flows at low elevations, where their occurrence is closely related to precipitation (intensity and duration), the breach of a DFMC event depends on precipitation and/or air temperature, which in turn influence melt/thaw processes, rending the formation mechanism much more complicated. Although research has been widely carried out on DFMC in past decades, there is still a long way to go before we have reached a complete understanding of the formation mechanism and triggering conditions. This review summarizes recent progress in the study of DFMC, including typical DFMC events and their causes, the failure mechanisms of rock (or ice-rock joints), the characteristics of moraine deposits, initiation through hydraulic erosion (entrainment), the relationship between DFMC initiation and meteorological conditions, and the slope stability of the mountain cryosphere under a changing climate. Several issues that should be addressed in future research are also discussed.

During the Little Ice Age (LIA), Corral del Veleta (Sierra Nevada) housed a small glacier of which relict glacial ice and permafrost still remain under packets of ice blocks. Currently, it is considered the southernmost rock glacier in Europe. The analysis and results of monitoring carried out on this rock glacier reveal it to be in an accelerated process of immobilization and that the relict glacial ice blocks and permafrost on which it lies are in a continual process of degradation. The rock glacier was monitored from 2001 to 2019 using diverse geomatic techniques, to which geophysical and thermal techniques were added. The results obtained during the observation period shed light on the dynamic of the rock glacier (morpho-topographic movements and deformations) as well as the physical state of the underlying frozen bodies (volumetric reduction and spatial distribution). The changes observed are related to variations in the dominant high-mountain climate of Sierra Nevada, particularly since the end of the 20th century, the general tendencies of which are increasing temperatures, decreasing annual snowfall, and a shorter duration of snow on the ground.

Rock glaciers are receiving increased attention as a potential source of water and indicator of climate change in periglacial landscapes. They consist of an ice-debris mixture, which creeps downslope. Although rock glaciers are a wide-spread feature on the Tibetan Plateau, characteristics such as its ice fraction are unknown as a superficial debris layer inhibits remote assessments. We investigate one rock glacier in the semiarid western Nyainqêntanglha range (WNR) with a multi-method approach, which combines geophysical, geological and geomorphological field investigations with remote sensing techniques. Long-term kinematics of the rock glacier are detected by 4-year InSAR time series analysis. The ice content and the active layer are examined by electrical resistivity tomography, ground penetrating radar, and environmental seismology. Short-term activity (11-days) is captured by a seismic network. Clast analysis shows a sorting of the rock glacier's debris. The rock glacier has three zones, which are defined by the following characteristics: (a) Two predominant lithology types are preserved separately in the superficial debris patterns, (b) heterogeneous kinematics and seismic activity, and (c) distinct ice fractions. Conceptually, the studied rock glacier is discussed as an endmember of the glacier—debris-covered glacier—rock glacier continuum. This, in turn, can be linked to its location on the semiarid lee-side of the mountain range against the Indian summer monsoon. Geologically preconditioned and glacially overprinted, the studied rock glacier is suggested to be a recurring example for similar rock glaciers in the WNR. This study highlights how geology, topography and climate influence rock glacier characteristics and development.

With ongoing climate change water availability in the source regions of alpine streams are at stake. In particular, dry mountain regions which currently rely on glacial meltwater will need to adapt. Since rock glaciers are more resilient to climate change and occur in nearly all high-mountain catchments around the globe with some form of glacierization, it is of interest to investigate their contribution to runoff under different climate scenarios. Three well-monitored rock glacier sites in the Swiss Alps (Murtel, Ritigraben, and Schafberg) have been investigated under the climate change scenarios corresponding to low, medium and high greenhouse gas emissions to determine how their runoff contribution is affected. By the end of the 21st century, runoff from permafrost melting could account for 5-12% (12.0% for Murtel, 7.0% for Ritigraben, and 5.0% for Schafberg) of monthly catchment runoff at maximum in an average year, and up to 50% in extreme years. For the low-emission scenario, little change in the runoff contribution from rock glaciers is found, while the medium-emission scenario shows increased variability and a shift in the seasonal runoff peak to earlier in the year. The high-emission scenario indicates a further increase in the variability of the permafrost runoff contribution and also the development of a secondary seasonal peak in autumn, most prominently in the late century., Permafrost and Periglacial Processes, 33 (3), ISSN:1045-6740, ISSN:1099-1530

The Macun lakes form a high-alpine (> 2,600 m asl) cirque landscape (3.6 km2) in the Swiss National Park, comprising 26 small lakes together with a number of temporary ponds. Streams interconnect the four largest lakes, forming the drainage network that flows into the Inn River at the town of Lavin. The drainage network of Macun consists of a north and a south basin that overlie an ortho-gneiss, meta-granitoid bedrock. The south basin is influenced by various rock glaciers. The physico-chemistry of surface waters at 10 sites has been monitored annually in midsummer since 2001. Further, an YSI EXO2 Multiparameter Sonde (Exosonde) with various water quality sensors has been employed since 2016 at the last lake in the network to examine seasonal and diel patterns in physico-chemistry. Results showed clear physico-chemical differences between the two basins, which mostly reflect rockglacier inputs in the south basin. Nitrogen values were two-fold higher and particulate phosphorus values two-fold lower in the south basin than in the north basin. Over time, the physico-chemistry in the two basins became more homogeneous, with a reduction in rock-glacial inputs in the south basin and an overall decrease in nitrogen in the catchment. Data from 30 springs and tributaries sampled in 2002 and 2017 reflected the basin differences and temporal changes observed at the primary study sites. Continuous temperature records showed north basin streams to be ca. 3°C warmer than south-basin streams, but with high inter-annual variation that reflected annual differences in weather and no evidence of a general change over time (increase or decrease). Exosonde data revealed strong seasonality in measured parameters as well as seasonality in diel patterns (e. g., dissolved oxygen, temperature, chlorophyll-a); diel fluctuations were most pronounced in summer and least in winter. The results highlight the importance of long-term monitoring for understanding ecosystem state changes in alpine freshwaters, especially during periods of rapid environmental change, eco.mont: Journal on Protected Mountain Areas Research and Management, 14 (2), ISSN:2073-106X, ISSN:2073-1558

The mountain range of Sierra Nevada is c. 90 km long and located in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula. Its highest peak, the Mulhacen (3479 m; 37o 03′ 12″ N, 3o 18′ 41″ W), is also the highest in the Iberian Peninsula. Sierra Nevada is part of the Betic Range, which crosses the southeastern part of the peninsula from southwest to northeast. It is composed of metamorphic and crystalline rocks that folded and fractured during the Alpine orogeny. The average annual temperature is 4.4°C, and the recorded precipitation at an altitude of 2500 m is 710 mm. The Pleistocene glaciers of the Sierra Nevada, the southernmost in Europe, were enclosed in the headwaters of ancient valleys, and their maximum lengths ranged between 6 and 9 km. Some moraines from the previous glacial cycle (130 ka) can be found here, but most of them belong to the Last Glacial Cycle, whose maximum advance occurred at c. 30 ka. An advance of almost similar proportions took place at approximately 20–19 ka, followed by a massive deglaciation until a new advance occurred in the Oldest Dryas. After the probable almost total disappearance of the glaciers, small cirque glaciers formed during the Younger Dryas. The glaciers melted away at the beginning of the Holocene, but rock glaciers formed simultaneously in numerous cirques. Later, during the Late Holocene, small glaciers formed only under the northern walls of the highest peaks (Mulhacen and Veleta), but disappeared at the end of the Little Ice Age, favoring the development of incipient rock glaciers.

The Redes Natural Park is located in the southeastern sector of the Principality of Asturias (43° 13′ N, 4° 58′ W). Most of its territory (378 km2) falls within the headwaters of the Nalon River, one of the main rivers on the northern slopes of the Cantabrian Mountains. The glacial landforms, discovered toward the latter half of the 20th century, include 62 glacial cirques (ranging in altitude from 1500 m to greater than 2000 m), accumulations (reaching altitudes of 930–1700 m), and other associated landforms. The development and conservation of the glacial morphology are influenced by several factors, most notably the lithological composition of the bedrock and its tectonic configuration, which in turn condition other slope parameters, such as the altitude, orientation, and inclination. Twenty-two glaciers existed in the Redes Natural Park during the maximum local glacial advance, occupying a total surface area of c. 41 km2. The maximum glacial advance would have taken place prior to 33.5 ka cal BP, perhaps with a later retreat. However, we interpret that the ice would have advanced by 24 ka, to then retreat at least between 18.1 and 14 ka. Subsequently, periglacial conditions would have prevailed (toward 13 ka), as indicated by the presence of rock glaciers. The subsequent action of the ice and snow is mainly marked by neve moraines, whose age is unknown. With regard to these ages, the area constitutes a reference locality from the geomorphological and geochronological points of view, specifically on account of the data obtained in the Monasterio River Valley.

The Southeastern Pyrenees extend eastward along the north-south line that the Segre River traces with its Andorran tributary, the Valira River. The main massifs correspond to the Tossa Plana de Lles-Calmquerdos-Carlit to the west, the Puigmal-Bastiments-Costabona in the center—both within the Cerdanya basin (Upper Segre Valley)—and the Ripolles district (headwaters of the Ter Valley) to the east. The discovery and analysis of the glacial landforms existing in these massifs started at the end of the 19th century, but it was not until the end of the 20th century when remarkable advances were made, complemented in the early 21st century with the establishment of the glacial chronology. Glacial landforms are limited to the mountain regions and include a great variety of landforms, ranging from extensive areas in the higher massifs modeled by ice field, valley glaciers >10 km long, and small glacial cirques in the lower mountains of the Pre-Pyrenean massifs. The main glacial advance in the Southeastern Pyrenees took place between 80 and 35 ka. Moreover, the glacial advance occurred during the global Last Glacial Maximum (gLGM) and reached almost the same extent as the previous advance. After a massive retreat at 19–20 ka, the glaciers readvanced at c. 17–16 ka. Most of the cirques were deglaciated at c. 15 ka, and rock glaciers formed afterward. Only in the highest cirques (2800 to 2900 m), north- and east-exposed, small glaciers were formed during the Younger Dryas. No glacial activity has been detected during the Holocene. This glacial evolution is very similar to that occurred in the northeastern slope of the Pyrenees but the spatiotemporal pattern of glacial oscillations since the Last Glacial Maximum is significantly different than in the Central Pyrenees, where the climate was more influenced by the Atlantic Ocean.

With an extension of about 1500 km, the Carpathian Mountains represent one of the major mountain landscapes of Europe. The Romanian Carpathians occupy 54% of the surface (96,900 km2). Representing a distinct part of the Alpine–Carpathian–Dinaridic orogenic system, they have a typical alpine structure, with several nappe complexes and thrust sheets. The metamorphic rocks and granitoid plutons are characteristic. In the marginal zones, sedimentary rocks are present, with the Flysch Zone unit, especially in the Eastern Carpathians. A total of 14 peaks in the Southern Carpathians exceed 2500 m, the highest being Moldoveanu Peak, with 2544 m in the Fagaras Mountains. Two main types of geomorphologic landscapes related to glacial erosion were identified in the Romanian Carpathians. The Borascu glacial landscape that consists of cirques developed at the edge of planation surfaces, while the second type is Fagaraș, an alpine-style glacial landscapes characterised by narrow, jagged ridges between glacial cirques and valleys, and horns, associated with striking glacial features. Geomorphological landscape is completed, afterward, with periglacial landforms (scree slopes, rock glaciers, rock streams, etc.). Located at the intersection of the parallel of 45° latitude with the meridian of 25° longitude, the Romanian Carpathians have a moderate continental temperate climate, the mean annual air temperature being −2.4°C at the highest meteorological station, Omu (2505 m, Southern Carpathians). The existence of glacial landforms and their correlation with the Quaternary glaciation was first reported in the northern part of the Eastern Carpathians and in the Southern Carpathians in the last two decades of the 19th century.

Flow velocities were measured on the Plator rock glacier in the Central Italian Alps using a correlation image analysis algorithm on orthophotos acquired by drones between the years 2016 and 2020. The spatial patterns of surface creep were then compared to the Bulk Creep Factor (BCF) spatial variability to interpret the rock glacier dynamics as a function of material properties and geometry. The rock glacier showed different creep rates in the rooting zone (0.40–0.90 m/y) and in the frontal zone (>4.0 m/y). Close to the rock glacier front, the BCF assumed the highest values, reaching values typical of rock glaciers experiencing destabilisation. Conversely, in the rooting zone the small rates corresponded to lowest BCFs, about five times smaller than in the frontal zone. The Plator rock glacier revealed a substantial advancement from 1981 to 2020 and distinct geomorphological features typical of rock glaciers exhibiting destabilising processes. Given the fast-moving phase, the advancement of both the front line and the front toe of the rock glacier, and the contrasting spatial distribution in the BCFs, the Plator could be considered a destabilised rock glacier.

La aplicación del método paleogeográfico al estudio de geoformas glaciares y de glaciares rocosos permite su caracterización morfométrica y sedimentológica, el establecimiento de una detallada secuencia morfoestratigráfica y una propuesta cronológica para las fases glaciares identificadas. Este estudio analiza un total de 86 geoformas (57 depósitos glaciares, 21 glaciares rocosos y 8 lóbulos protalud) en el valle de la Bonaigua (cuenca de la Noguera Pallaresa, Pirineo Central) con especial atención a la diferenciación entre morrenas de glaciar cubierto y depósitos de glaciar rocoso. Otros temas estudiados referentes a glaciares rocosos son su origen periglaciar o glaciar; la posible funcionalidad actual de algunas geoformas y la detección de glaciares rocosos situados a altitudes bajas (en el actual entorno forestal) mediante la utilización de un modelo digital de elevación de alta resolución (2x2 m) procedente de datos LIDAR. La hipótesis cronológica elaborada por correlación con otros altos valles pirenaicos (con dataciones absolutas disponibles) incluye 7 fases (6 fases glaciares y 1 fase periglaciar) en las que coexisten y/o evolucionan, en una dinámica paraglacial, glaciares, glaciares cubiertos y glaciares rocosos, y que situamos temporalmente entre finales del Dryas antiguo y la Pequeña Edad del Hielo (PEH).

Centipedes (Chilopoda) are widespread and abundant predators in several kind of habitats, from forests to caves. Very few quantitative data are currently available for alpine habitats, specifically those located at high-altitudes. In this paper, we analysed data on centipedes collected by pitfall traps on different high-altitude landforms of the Central-Eastern Italian Alps, specifically on rock glaciers, debris-covered glaciers, glacier forelands, stable slopes, and scree slopes. We investigated the species richness and abundance (activity density) of individuals in each landform and the relationships between species occurrence and environmental variables in the investigated landforms. The obtained results highlighted non-significant differences in species richness between the landforms, but significant differences in individual abundance and species distribution. Soil organic matter, soil gravel percentage and altitude resulted the main variables affecting the species distribution; a clear preference for landforms located near the treeline was highlighted. Lithobius lucifugus resulted the dominant and most common species as well as the only species able to colonise debris-covered glaciers.

Little information exists regarding the geomorphologic characteristics, spatial distribution and genesis and activity of rock glaciers in the Balkan Peninsula. A total of 224 rock glaciers were ide...

Mountains are among the most sensitive ecosystems to climate change, and one of the most evident signs of climate-related effect is the continuous net loss of ice from the cryosphere. Several studies showed that meltwater from glaciated and perennially frozen areas can profoundly affect alpine aquatic ecosystems. Here, we present the impressive temporal increase in solutes in Lake Leit, a mountain lake in the Central Alps that is impacted by an active rock glacier. During the last 30 years, concentrations of sulfate and base cations increased by factors of 4 and 3, respectively. Atmospheric deposition, the only catchment external source, could be excluded as possible cause. The inlets have sulfate and base cations concentrations that were up to double the concentrations of the lake outlet confirming the presence of catchment internal sources. The highest concentrations were measured in the springs at the bottom of the rock glacier. Ground surface temperatures of the rock glacier indicated a high probability of permafrost occurrence, while the annual mean air temperature after the mid-1980s showed continuously positive deviations from the long-term average values (period 1961-1990) with increasing values after 2010. delta S-34 of sulfate in the inlets and the outflow indicated that sulfate in Lake Leit mainly derived from dissolution of gypsum/anhydrite even if its presence is not confirmed by the Geologic Atlas of Switzerland. Because of these results, we postulate the presence of subsurface traces of sulfate-bearing evaporites, probably associated with Triassic metasediments. These deposits are very common in the closer surroundings. We further hypothesize that the thawing of permafrost affects the flow path of water enabling its contact with fresh highly weatherable minerals increasing the overall weathering rate and shifting the relative ionic composition in the discharge toward the ions that originate from the most soluble minerals. This study shows that increased permafrost thawing in the future can influence water quality in high-alpine settings., Aquatic Geochemistry, 27 (2), ISSN:1380-6165, ISSN:1573-1421

Between 2008 and 2016 the Morenas Coloradas rock glacier in the Central Andes of Mendoza showed different thermal characteristics at three monitoring sites in active layers, Balcón I (3560 m a.s.l.), Balcón I Superior (3590 m a.s.l.) and Balcón II (3770 m a.s.l.). These can be explained by various factors, not only external ones related to the climatic variability and altitude, but also by thermal-hydrological factors that destabilized its internal cryogenic structure. At Balcón I, situated on a sloping terrace of the rock glacier, a transient layer even showed definitive signs of permafrost degradation in the recent years, transforming it in a thermal talik. Long-term studies of surficial boreholes showed that the 0°C isotherm is higher in altitude than the active front of the rock glacier and it has risen 40 m in altitude since the 1990s. As consequence of the thermal changes of the active layer, the rock glacier shows abrupt movements, particularly in its terminal part. Thus geodesic measurements to obtain different speeds and directions were made. At the monitoring area of Balcón I Superior, which lies on a superimposed lobe, the geodesic measurement points revealed significant kinematic activity in the period May 2015 – February 2016, when the largest displacement was approximately 2 m to the South, developing an advance of the front over Balcón I. At Balcón II however, the points moved much less, in the order of 0.30 m yr-1. The present studies suggest that the largest cryogenic sedimentary movements are superficial, that is to say, they are located in the active layer and the supra-permafrost and are due to internal movements produced by melting water coming from the top of the cryoform, and from both sides of the upper basin of the valley. En el período 2008-2016 el glaciar de escombros de Morenas Coloradas, en los Andes Centrales de Mendoza, presentó en sus sitios de monitoreo Balcón I (3560 m s.n.m.), Balcón I Superior (3590 m s.n.m.) and Balcón II (3770 m s.n.m.) situaciones térmicas de capa activa disímiles entre sí adjudicadas a varios factores, no solamente externos, relacionados con la variabilidad climática y la altura, sino con situaciones termo-hídricas desestabilizadoras de su estructura interna. En el sitio de monitoreo Balcón I, situado en una terraza inclinada y deprimida del glaciar de escombros, una capa transitoria mostró incluso signos definitivos de degradación del permafrost en los últimos años, transformando el sitio en un talik térmico. Estudios más prolongados con perforaciones superficiales demostraron que la isoterma de 0 °C se halla más alta que el frente activo del glaciar de escombros y que la misma había ascendido aproximadamente unos 40 m en altitud desde la década de 1990. Como consecuencia de los cambios térmicos en los perfiles de capas activas, el glaciar de escombros muestra movimientos rápidos, particularmente en su parte terminal. Por este motivo, se hicieron mediciones geodésicas para obtener las diferentes velocidades criodinámicas y sus direcciones. En el área de monitoreo de Balcón I Superior, que se encuentra en un lóbulo superpuesto a Balcón I, los puntos de medición geodésicos revelaron una actividad cinemática significativa en el período de mayo de 2015 a febrero de 2016, siendo el mayor desplazamiento de aproximadamente 2 m hacia el sur, desarrollando un avance del frente hacia Balcón I, Sin embargo, en Balcón II, los puntos geodésicos se movieron mucho menos, del orden de 0,30 m año-1. Los estudios actuales sugieren que los movimientos sedimentarios criogénicos más grandes son superficiales, es decir, se ubican en la capa activa, de transición y en el supra-permafrost y se deben a movimientos internos producidos por el derretimiento del agua proveniente de la parte superior de la crioforma, y de ambos lados de la cuenca alta del valle. Fil: Trombotto, Dario Tomas. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales. Provincia de Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales; Argentina Fil: Bottegal, Estefania Laura. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales. Provincia de Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Instituto Argentino de Nivología, Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales; Argentina

In this work, a statistical permafrost distribution model for coarse-blocky deposits in the Dry Andes of Argentina (28-33°S) is presented. The empiric mathematical formulation was based on a logistic regression. The final model is a combination of two independent occurrence probability models: a) a mean annual air temperature-terrain ruggedness model and, b) a mean annual air temperature-potential incoming solar radiation model. For all cases, calibration was made according the complete geomorphological characterization of a periglacial basin with 250 km2. Lately, the results of probabilistic model were extrapolated to the whole study area in the Dry Andes and compared with the Argentine rock glacier inventory data base. High permafrost likelihood, in coarse debris, is expected above 4200 and 5700 m a.s.l., from south to north in the study area and covers a surface of approximately 1200 km2. Medium permafrost likelihood is expected above 3400 and 4200 m a.s.l. with a surface of 6178 km2 while low permafrost likelihood, occurs between 3000 and 3400 m a.s.l. with an area of 11.060 km2. These findings indicate that permafrost may occur in several types of coarse-blocky deposits in the Dry Andes, not only restricted to rock glaciers. Thermal properties of the ground in coarse-blocky deposits allow permafrost permanence, even under unfavourable climatic conditions.The performance of the permafrost model was also tested, considering the transition from cold paleoclimate Tardiglacial to present climatic conditions. During the warming, likely permafrost surface reduced from 56 to 13%. In the same way, rock glaciers with high and medium permafrost likelihood decrease from 62 to 30%, respectively while, rock glaciers with low likelihood and no permafrost category, increased 75% and 474%, respectively. Moreover, we identified some sites in which permafrost degradation is arguably expected. About that, 0.9% of the rock glaciers in the study area display possible permafrost degradation and 33% of them, likely permafrost degradation.

Rock glaciers are the most prominent landforms of alpine permafrost and comprise complex shallow aquifer systems in (high) alpine catchments. Recession analyses of groundwater discharge of four active rock glaciers that contain permafrost ground ice show that they have a base flow component of the order of a few liters per second, similar to that of a relict rock glacier in which permafrost ground ice is absent. This is related to an unfrozen (fine-grained) base layer with a thickness of about 10 m. Based on a threshold analysis of precipitation events and event water discharge, depressions atop the bedrock or the permafrost table seem to play only a minor role in storing groundwater. This important finding has rarely been documented, but is highly relevant for optimal groundwater resources management in sensitive (high) alpine catchments and ecosystems. All the rock glaciers analyzed here are located in the Austrian Alps and represent the nationwide sites where suitable discharge data are available. The analysis highlights the hydrogeological importance of these discrete permafrost-derived debris accumulations as complex shallow groundwater bodies with important—but limited—storage and buffer capabilities.

Field observations, map analysis and the use of terrestrial and aerial photography and Google Earth show that the Gruben rock glacier, discussed in the literature since 1974, does contain a glacier...

Although Turkey is a mid-latitude country, because of its relatively high topography it hosted Quaternary glaciers on its mountains. Some of these high mountains (> 3500 m above sea level) still contain recent glaciers, probably remnants of Holocene glacier advances. Despite the abundance of recent cosmogenic surface exposure dating studies in Turkey, Holocene glacial chronologies are still limited. Here, we reviewed five mountains in Turkey where Holocene chronologies were presented in earlier studies. All these glacial chronologies are located in the western and central Taurus Mountain Ranges and in central Anatolia. The timing of the glaciations has been established mainly by cosmogenic 36Cl surface exposure dating. We re-calculated some of the published cosmogenic ages using up-to-date production rates and scaling schemas. The maximum extent of glaciers was during the Last Glacial Maximum (c. 21 ka), but Late-glacial (c. 16 ka) and Younger Dryas (c. 12 ka) ages were also reported. At the onset of the Holocene (c. 11 ka), glaciers retreated to less extensive positions and deposited their moraines. Contemporaneously, periglacial and paraglacial processes also became active with the development of rock glaciers in several parts of the country. Some mountains still contain active glaciers although the melting tendency is obvious as in other parts of the world. Considering the paleoglacial/glacial regions in Turkey, there are numerous areas that do not have their own glacial chronologies and further studies should focus on these undated regions.

Several complexes of glacial-permafrost stone formations have been studied in the Central Altai using geophysical methods. The features of their internal structure together with characteristic differences between them depending on the dynamic activity, altitude and geomorphological characteristics were determined. Integration of the methods of the electrical resistivity tomography and the GPR-sounding made it possible to distinguish roofs on all the studied formations and to estimate thicknesses of the stone-ice cores. Studying of eight formations with different degrees of activity and located at different altitudes did show that the thicknesses of the stone-ice cores increase with height: from 8–10 m in the mid-mountain zone up to 18-20 m in the highlands. The values of the specific resistance of cores inside the glacial-stone formations are directly proportional to altitudes of the objects (the correlation coefficient is 0.7) that give an indication of increasing in the amount of ice in them with height. The depth of occurrence of the roof of the stone-ice material in the formations is more dependent on the exposure of the slope on which the object is located, and changes from 1–2 m on slopes of the Northern exposure up to 4–6 m on slopes of the Southern and Western exposures.

Mount Akdag, located 25 km northeast of Alanya (2451 m above sea level a.s.l.), and largely made up of carbonates, is one of the mountains exposed to Late Quaternary glaciation in the Western Taurus Mountains. Although today, there are no modern glaciers, the traces of the Late Quaternary glaciers and rock glaciers are still fresh. In this study, geomorphological features related to the glaciations in Mount Akdag, which were not previously reported in the literature, were first identified from satellite images, and then verified by field studies. The geomorphological development of Mount Akdag during the Quaternary was explained by considering its climatic and karstic characteristics. For this purpose, spatial data obtained from field studies, unmanned aerial vehicles and meteorological stations were analysed using geographic information systems. Akdag is directly open to humid air masses coming from the SW sector over the Mediterranean Sea, resulting in heavy orographic precipitation that encouraged the growth of glaciers. In addition, glacier reconstruction and pELA estimates have been made to contribute to the interpretation of glacial geomorphology. The pELA in Mount Akdag was calculated with the AABR ratio of 1.69, and was found to be around 2030 m a.s.l. More than 15 cirques and a 6.5 km long glacial valley in Mount Akdag indicate the presence of glaciers. Reconstruction of the paleoglaciers shows that the lowest altitude reached was 1410 m a.s.l. At their maximum extent glaciers covered an area of ~ 14 km2, with a volume of ~ 1 km3 and had an average thickness of 60 m with a maximum glacier thickness of ~ 200 m.

Fil: Trombotto, Dario Tomas. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Tecnicas. Centro Cientifico Tecnologico Conicet - Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Nivologia, Glaciologia y Ciencias Ambientales. Provincia de Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Nivologia, Glaciologia y Ciencias Ambientales. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Instituto Argentino de Nivologia, Glaciologia y Ciencias Ambientales; Argentina

The South Fork of Wright Valley contains one of the largest rock glaciers in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, stretching 7 km from the eastern boundary of the Labyrinth and terminating at Don Juan Pond (DJP). Here, we use results from ground-penetrating radar (GPR), qualitative field observations, soil leaching analyses and X-ray diffraction analyses to investigate rock glacier development. The absence of significant clean ice in GPR data, paired with observations of talus and interstitial ice influx from the valley walls, support rock glacier formation via talus accumulation. A quartz-dominated subsurface composition and discontinuous, well-developed desert pavements suggest initial rock glacier formation occurred before the late Quaternary. Major ion data from soil leaching analyses show higher salt concentrations in the rock glacier and talus samples that are close to hypersaline DJP. These observations suggest that DJP acts as a local salt source to the rock glacier, as well as the surrounding talus slopes that host water track systems that deliver solutes back into the lake, suggesting a local feedback system. Finally, the lack of lacustrine sedimentation on the rock glacier is inconsistent with the advance of a glacially dammed lake into South Fork during the Last Glacial Maximum.

International audience; A network of seismometers has been installed on the Gugla rock glacier since October 2015 to estimate seismic velocity changes and detect micro-seismicity. These two processes are related to mechanical and structural variations occurring within the rock glacier. Seismic monitoring thus allows a better understanding of the dynamics of rock glaciers throughout the year. We observed seasonal variations in seismic wave velocity and micro-seismic activity over the three years of the study. In the first part of our analysis, we used ambient noise correlations to compute daily changes of surface wave velocity. In winter, seismic wave velocities were higher, probably due to refreezing of the active permafrost layer and cooling of the uppermost permafrost layers, leading to increased overall rigidity of the medium. This assumption was verified using a seismic model of wave propagation that estimates the depth of P-and S-wave velocity changes from 0 down to 10 m. During melting periods, both a sudden velocity decrease and a decorrelation of the seismic responses were observed. These effects can probably be explained by the increased water content of the active layer. In the second part of our study, we focused on detecting micro-seismic signals generated in the vicinity of the rock glacier. This seismic activity (micro-quakes and rockfalls) also exhibits seasonal variations, with a maximum in spring and summer, which correlate with acceleration of the rock glacier's displacement rate. In addition, we observed short bursts of micro-seismicity, both during snowfall and during rapid melting periods. All these observations could be included in systems monitoring permafrost and slope destabilization, to complement existing records.

Several complexes of glacial-permafrost stone formations have been studied in the Central Altai using geophysical methods. The features of their internal structure together with characteristic differences between them depending on the dynamic activity, altitude and geomorphological characteristics were determined. Integration of the methods of the electrical resistivity tomography and the GPR-sounding made it possible to distinguish roofs on all the studied formations and to estimate thicknesses of the stone-ice cores. Studying of eight formations with different degrees of activity and located at different altitudes did show that the thicknesses of the stone-ice cores increase with height: from 8–10 m in the mid-mountain zone up to 18-20 m in the highlands. The values of the specific resistance of cores inside the glacial-stone formations are directly proportional to altitudes of the objects (the correlation coefficient is 0.7) that give an indication of increasing in the amount of ice in them with height. The depth of occurrence of the roof of the stone-ice material in the formations is more dependent on the exposure of the slope on which the object is located, and changes from 1–2 m on slopes of the Northern exposure up to 4–6 m on slopes of the Southern and Western exposures.

A first consistent and homogenized polygon-based inventory of rock glaciers of the Austrian Alps is presented. Compiling previous inventories and updating them by using digital elevation models (1 m grid resolution) derived from airborne laser scanning yield a dataset of 5769 rock glaciers in a ca. 48400 km2 large area. A consistent methodological approach for assigning attributes, stored in a detailed attribute table, was developed and applied here to improve comparability and reproducibility. The majority (60 %) of the studied landforms is considered to be relict (no permafrost); the remaining 40 % may still contain permafrost ice and are thus classified as intact. Rock glaciers range in elevation from 476 to 3312 m a.s.l. and cover a total area of 303 km2. The distribution of rock glaciers is mainly related to the topography of the Austrian Alps and related effects such as past glaciation history. In addition, a comprehensive analysis of the hydrological catchment areas of all individual rock glaciers was carried out. A hydrological catchment analysis in rock glacier areas is of great interest for sustainable water management issues in alpine catchments as these landforms represent shallow aquifer systems with a relatively high storage and thus buffer capability, especially in crystalline bedrock areas. A total area of almost 1280 km2 is drained through rock glaciers. The presented rock glacier and rock glacier catchment inventories provide an important basis for further research, particularly for a better understanding of the hydrogeology and geomorphology of alpine catchments and their potential alteration in the light of climate change, but also in terms of paleoglaciation and deglaciation in the Alpine Lateglacial to Holocene period. As such, the inventories are seen as an important base to stimulate further research.

The Ulakhan-Chistay Ridge is interesting by the fact that one of the most extensive mountain glaciations in northeast Russia is located here. In addition, there are widespread specific glacial-cryogenic formations – stone glaciers related to glacial and periglacial processes. On the basis of geoinformation mapping on evidence of remote sensing of the Earth and field investigations within boundaries of the Ridge, 1812 stone glaciers of different morphological types in relation to the enclosing relief were found, among them 111 circus (corrie) and 1701 niche ones. In the group of corrie glaciers, the dominating units are the active forms (76). Some of them are distinctive in the complex structure with different age generations. Among the niche glaciers 948 active, 545 inactive, and 208 relict ones were determined. The analysis of frequency distributions has allowed establishing that the stone glaciers of the studied area are located within the interval of heights 550-2450 m above the sea level. However, the main part of the active formations are positioned at heights of 1500–1900 m. Field observations of stone glaciers were carried out in the upper part of the Kyureter River area that is on the eastern slope of the Ridge. Investigations did show that thicknesses of glaciers at the key area (site) did not exceed 50 m, and they probably consist of several coalesced lobes. Thus, they form polylobate stone glaciers which width may reach 610 m or more with the lobes extending for up to 340 m.

The ice-cored Galena Creek Rock Glacier, Wyoming, USA, has been the subject of a number of studies that sought to determine the origin of its ice. We present new observations of the rock glacier's internal structure from ground-penetrating radar to constrain ice and debris distribution and accumulation. We imaged dipping reflectors in the center of the glacier that are weak and discontinuous, in contrast to strong reflectors toward the edge of the cirque beneath large debris-avalanche chutes. These reflectors form a network of concave-up, up-glacier dipping layers. We interpret these as englacial debris bands formed by large debris falls buried by subsequent ice and snow accumulation. They are discontinuous where ice outpaces debris accumulation, but with sufficient debris accumulation an interleaved pattern of ice and debris layers can form. We propose a model in which the ice in these interleaved layers is snowfall preserved by debris-facilitated accumulation. Large debris falls that occur in early spring bury sections of the snowpack, which are then preserved through summer and incorporated into the rock glacier body over time. This study highlights the importance of sequential accumulation of ice and debris for understanding the dynamics of rock glaciers and debris-covered glaciers.