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Aim: The aims of this study were to (1) formulate a baseline understanding of the performance of the indigenous Cypriot white grape Xynisteri and the red grape Maratheftiko (Vitis vinifera L.), and (2) compare these varieties to Shiraz and Sauvignon blanc grown in a Cypriot vineyard.Materials and results: The investigation involved multiple dry grown vineyards from the Krasochoria region of Lemesos, Cyprus, during the 2017, 2018 and 2019 vintages. Vine performance measurements, including midday stem water potential, stomatal conductance, chlorophyll content, stomata density, vine phenology and vegetative and reproductive measurements, were taken at flowering, veraison and pre-harvest. Xynisteri had the greatest stomatal density, more shoots, more leaves, heavier bunches, greater yield, higher leaf water potential at harvest, and a stomatal conductance equal to Maratheftiko, but greater than that of both Shiraz and Sauvignon blanc. Maratheftiko had the longest shoots, largest shoot diameter and the greatest chlorophyll content out of all four varieties.Conclusions: This study identified the ability of the indigenous Cypriot grape varieties, Xynisteri and Maratheftiko, to better tolerate hot and dry conditions when compared to more commonly cultivated varieties grown in the same environmental conditions.Significance and impact of the study: The changing climate of wine growing regions worldwide is placing great pressure on the resources for sustainable viticulture. Many vineyards in hot climate zones base their businesses on European grape varieties traditionally grown in regions with abundant water resources. It is therefore necessary for the global wine industry to investigate grape varieties that are indigenous to hot climates. The eastern Mediterranean island of Cyprus is one such place, with more than 10 indigenous grape varieties that grow well in a hot climate without irrigation. Consumer studies have demonstrated that wines made from these Cypriot varieties are equally, if not more, acceptable than wines made from more traditional European grapes; therefore, the potential for their use in other hot wine growing regions is promising.

To endure the challenge of climate change, the Australian wine industry could adopt new wine grape varieties more tolerant of these pending conditions. The aims of this study were to (i) generate sensory profiles and (ii) gain knowledge about Australian wine consumers’ liking of Australian and international wines made from selected drought-resistant, red wine grape varieties not traditionally grown in Australia but better suited for a changing Australian climate. A Rate-All-That-Apply (RATA) sensory panel (n = 43) profiled 24 commercial red wines made from 9 purportedly drought-tolerant red grape varieties, plus a single example of an Australian Cabernet-Sauvignon, Grenache and Shiraz wine. A subset of 10 wines was subjected to preference trials with Australian red wine consumers (n = 113) and underwent basic chemical composition measures. Consumers liked all 10 wines, scoring them greater than 5.7 on a 9-point Likert scale. The Fine Wine Instrument (FWI) identified 3 consumer segments (Wine Enthusiasts (WE); Aspirants (ASP) and No Frills (NF)). WE liked the 2 Touriga Nacional and Nero d’Avola wines significantly more than the NF consumers and the Graciano significantly more than the ASP. Correlation tests determined that the WE segment liked wines with aromas of vanilla, sweet taste, jammy, confectionary, vanilla and woody flavours and a non-fruit after taste, and the attributes responsible for the ASP segment's liking of the wines were red colour, jammy and toasty/smoky aromas, jammy and savoury flavours and alcohol mouthfeel and non-fruity aftertaste. NF consumers liked wines with aromas of vanilla, confectionary, jammy and red fruit flavours; smooth mouthfeel and a fruity aftertaste, but disliked wines displaying aromas of cooked vegetables and savoury, bitter taste, flavours of cooked vegetables, forest floor, green pepper and herbaceous, and rough mouthfeel. WE liked wines reminiscent of Cabernet-Sauvignon, Grenache and Shiraz while the ASP and NF consumers had preferences leaning towards wines similar in style to a Shiraz and Grenache, respectively. These findings indicate to wine producers the potential of these new wines in the current Australian market and the possibility that increasing future cultivation of these varieties as a response to climate change might lead to a more sustainable wine industry in the future.

It is still not fully clear how particular aromas in wine may affect consumers’ liking and emotional responses, and whether these change in different contexts and seasons. Therefore, a study was conducted with 3000 regular wine consumers from Australia, UK and USA using an online survey that assessed liking for 59 wine aromas, and from which 9 aromas, selected as representatives of groups of similar aromas, were profiled for elicited emotions by the ScentMove™ scale. The most liked wine aromas across all countries were ‘berry-like’, followed by ‘vanilla’, ‘chocolate’, ‘citrus-like’ and ‘honey’. Interestingly, aromas with the same liking rating displayed significantly different emotional profiles which seemed to drive differences in preferred consumption occasion and season. For example, highly liked ‘passionfruit’ aroma, associated with happy, relaxed and romantic emotions, was suitable for many occasions and seasons, ‘lemon’ evoked energetic emotions and was preferred in wines consumed at parties/BBQs in summer, while ‘chocolate’ would fit well in a restaurant. Hedonic and emotional responses towards selected wine aromas differed between various demographic groups. Gender, age and consumption frequency had greater effects than education or income, with similar patterns found in each country indicating similarity in wine cultures and the language used. The national influence was more reflected in the polarised rating by the USA consumers compared to UK and Australia. This information could be utilised to produce wines for specific occasions and seasons.

Ganoderma lucidum (GL) is a woody mushroom that has been widely used for many centuries in traditional Chinese medicine. Its bioactive-compounds are believed to promote longevity and prevent diseases in humans. With the close proximity of emerging Asian markets, Australian winemakers are beginning to adopt consumer-centric wine product development as a strategy to generate wines with profiles that meet the specific demands of these consumers. This cross-cultural study recruited 412 wine consumers (Chinese, Vietnamese and Australian) to participate in a survey to understand wine consumers' potential acceptance and self-reported intent towards new wine products produced with GL extracts and the relationship of their responses with wine neophobicity across cultures. Findings revealed that all consumer groups accepted the notion that GL wine products would be worth tasting and they would try them at social events, with Vietnamese consumers being particularly interested. Using the wine neophobia scale (WNS), three segments containing wine neophiles (n = 110), neutrals (n = 190) and wine neophobes (n = 112) were identified. The results revealed that Australian and Chinese participants were significantly more wine neophilic, compared to Vietnamese. As expected, neophiles were more prepared to taste and purchase GL wine products compared to neophobes across all three countries, although no gender differences were observed. The study provides the wine industry insights about consumers' attitudes towards a new GL wine product targeted to Australian and Asian markets that could help develop new niche wine categories and enhance consumers' satisfaction.

Polyfunctional thiols have previously been shown to be key aroma compounds in Sauvignon blanc and more recently in Chardonnay wines. Their role in other wine varieties such as those made from three popular indigenous Cypriot grape varieties has remained unexplored. As an extension of a previous project that profiled the sensory and chemical characteristics of Cypriot wines and their comparison to Australian wines, this study aimed to investigate five potent thiols in Xynisteri, Maratheftiko, Giannoudhi, Pinot gris, Chardonnay and Shiraz wines. Wines were analysed utilising Stable Isotope Dilution Assay (SIDA) with derivatisation and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The varietal thiols measured were 4-methyl-4-sulfanylpentan-2-one (4MSP) that has an aroma of “boxwood” and “cat urine” at high concentration, 3-sulfanylhexan-1-ol (3SH) which has been described as having a “grapefruit/tropical fruit” aroma, and 3-sulfanylhexyl acetate (3SHA) that has also been described as having an aroma of “passionfruit”. Additionally, two other potent thiols were measured including benzyl mercaptan (BM) that has an aroma of “smoke and meat” and furfuryl thiol (FFT) that has been described as having a “roasted coffee” like aroma. The reason these thiols are known as potent thiols are due to their very low aroma detection thresholds in the low ng/L (ppt) range. Of the thiols that were measured, 3SH was the only varietal thiol detected in the red wine samples. All of the white wine samples contained 3SH, BM and 3SHA, whereas 4MSP was only detected in Pinot gris and three Xynisteri wines. The potent thiol, FFT, was detected only in the Chardonnay and four of the Xynisteri wines. Interestingly the thiols that were present in the samples were found at concentrations above their aroma detection thresholds (determined in hydroalcoholic solutions), especially 3SH which was found in an order of magnitude above its aroma detection threshold. These findings provide early knowledge of the presence of these thiols in Cypriot wines, compared with Australian wines and establish any relationships between this chemical data with previous wine sensory profile data.

Wine consumer lifestyle segmentation has been widely studied, however, most studies have solely utilised online surveys. This work investigated the impact of context on wine consumer segments&rsquo, liking and emotions while consuming wines in different environments. Two studies were conducted with regular wine consumers segmented based on their fine wine behaviour using the Fine Wine Instrument. Study 1 (n = 122) investigated the effects of wine variety and product information, and Study 2 (n = 346) the effects of wine quality and consumption context, on hedonic and emotional responses of the segments. Within both studies, three segments were identified and named: Wine Enthusiasts, Aspirants and No Frills. The Wine Enthusiast segment generally liked the wines more and perceived more intense positive emotions when consuming wine compared to the No Frills segment, with the Aspirant&rsquo, s likes and emotion intensities ranging in between. Wine Enthusiasts were more discriminative of their preferred wines and reported stronger positive emotions when tasting higher quality (Study 1) and more complex (Study 2) wines. The consistent results across the two studies showed for the first time that consumer segments, based on lifestyle segmentation, differ in their hedonic and emotional responses towards wine when actually tasting wines, demonstrating that the Fine Wine Instrument has practical implications and can identify wine consumers displaying different wine consumption behaviours.

The world’s changing climate is placing great pressure on the resources for sustainable viticulture. With this, it has become necessary to investigate grape varieties that are well adapted to hot climates. This study investigated whether two Cypriot varieties (Xynisteri and Maratheftiko) responded differently to Shiraz and Sauvignon Blanc grown under different irrigation regimes (full, 50% and 25%). Irrigation trials were established in Cyprus in 2019 and in Australia in 2020/2021. Vine growth and physiology and fruit composition (field trial only) measurements were recorded. The trial in Cyprus in 2019 demonstrated that for all three irrigation regimes, Xynisteri had higher stem water potential, stomatal conductance, chlorophyll and greater biomass than Sauvignon Blanc under all irrigation regimes. In 2020/2021, Xynisteri had a greater biomass than Maratheftiko and Sauvignon Blanc, with Shiraz having the lowest. Under reduced irrigation, Xynisteri and Maratheftiko had higher stem water potential, stomatal conductance and chlorophyll content than Shiraz and Sauvignon Blanc. These results indicate that Xynisteri in particular may possess better cultivar-specific growth traits than Shiraz and Sauvignon Blanc when grown under the same environmental conditions and in turn may be a more appropriate choice in areas where water is limited.

Natural flavorings could potentially be used to enhance the intensity of wine aroma and flavor, albeit since flavor additives are not legally permitted winemaking aids, flavored wines would need to be labeled as wine products. In this study, changes in the composition and sensory profiles of flavored Chardonnay (n = 2) and Shiraz (n = 2) wines were compared at bottling, and then again after 12 months of bottle aging. Flavorings and flavored wines were also analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to determine the key constituents responsible for changes to aroma and flavor profiles. However, many of the volatile compounds identified in flavor additives were not detected at appreciably higher concentrations in flavored wines, which was attributed to the very small quantities of flavorings that were added to base wines. The sensory profiles of control and flavored wines were determined by descriptive analysis, and the addition of flavorings to base wines significantly influenced the perception of some sensory attributes. Flavored Chardonnay wines exhibited enhanced fruit aromas and flavors, while fruit and developed attributes were enhanced in flavored Shiraz wines. Differences in sensory profiles were less apparent in Chardonnay wines following bottle aging, but depending on the flavorings added, flavored Shiraz wines could still be discriminated from their corresponding control wines after bottle aging. Results from this study demonstrate the potential for flavor additives to be used to enhance desirable attributes and/or mitigate wine sensory deficiencies.

Novel Shiraz red wine products enriched with Ganoderma lucidum (GL) extract, a traditional Asian medicinal mushroom, were developed and characterized. GL extract was added at different levels prior to and after primary fermentation to investigate its impact on the juice fermentation kinetics, and the chemical composition and sensory properties of the resulting wines. The fermentation kinetics of red grape juice were not significantly different between ferments. Basic chemical analyses plus headspace solid-phase micro-extraction (HS-SPME), gas chromatography‒mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and a rate-all-that-apply (RATA) (n = 65) sensory panel were used to investigate the influence of GL extract additions on wine composition and sensory characteristics. Of the 54 sensory attributes assessed, 39 significantly differentiated the wines. A clear separation between GL wine treatments was evident with PLS regression, where specific volatiles were correlated with relevant sensory attributes that dominated the wines. These products could be promising for emerging wine markets.

The aim of this work was to investigate how useful the Rate-All-That-Apply (RATA) method with naive consumers is to profile a wide range of wines and how the sensory profiles obtained compare with those of classic descriptive analysis (DA). For this purpose, we conducted two studies. Study 1 presents preliminary work comparing the discrimination ability of RATA, undertaken by 84 naive consumers, with a traditional DA with 11 trained panelists. The vocabulary lists remained the same across the two methods, and the assessment was based on a set of six red table wines (from six different varieties). Study 2 aimed to further elucidate the discrimination ability of RATA with 71 naive consumers compared with traditional DA. It expanded on Study 1 by increasing the number of samples assessed (12 white table wines from six varieties) and by varying the vocabulary between methods (RATA used a generic white wine attribute list and the DA used a panel-generated attribute list). In addition, similarity of sample configuration in the sensory space between RATA and DA was assessed by means of multiple factor analysis (MFA) and regression vector (RV) coefficients. The results of both studies revealed that RATA and DA are highly similar in sample discrimination ability (in terms of number of attributes significantly discriminating among samples). Furthermore, the MFA indicated high agreement in sample configuration between RATA and DA, reinforced by highly significant RV coefficients of 0.97 for Study 1 and 0.92 for Study 2. Overall, this observation supports a trend toward more consumer-centric approaches for sensory profiling and suggests that RATA could be a valid, accurate, and rapid addition to existing profiling methods used for wine.

This study investigated how information, typically presented on wine back-labels or wine company websites, influences consumers' expected liking, informed liking, wine-evoked emotions and willingness to pay for Australian white wines. Regular white wine consumers (n=126) evaluated the same set of three commercially available white wines (mono-varietal Chardonnay, Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc) under three information levels. Session 1, blind tasting (no information provided) and Session 2, informed tasting (held at least 1week later) with both basic (sensory description of the wines) and elaborate (sensory plus high wine quality and favourable winery information) descriptions followed by liking, wine-evoked emotions (measured with the Australian Wine Evoked Emotions Lexicon (AWEEL)) and willingness to pay evaluations. Before tasting the wine in session 2, consumers also rated expected liking. Results showed that information level had a significant effect on all investigated variables. The elaborate information level evoked higher expectations before tasting the wines, plus resulted in higher liking ratings, elicitation of more intense positive (e.g. contented, happy and warm-hearted) and less intense negative emotions (e.g. embarrassed and unfulfilled), and a substantial increase in willingness to pay after tasting the wines compared to the blind condition, with the basic condition ranging in-between. These results were consistent across the three wine samples. Furthermore, if the liking rating after tasting the wines matched the expected liking or exceeded the expectations by 1 point on a 9-point hedonic scale, participants felt the most intense positive emotions and the least intense negative emotions. Whereas, if the expectations were not met or the actual liking exceeded the expectations by >2 points, participants felt less intense positive and more intense negative emotions. This highlights not only the importance of well written and accurate wine descriptions, but also that information can influence consumers' wine drinking experience and behaviour.

The use of winemaking additives is governed by strict regulations, and currently, flavor additives are not legally permitted in commercial wine production: their addition to a wine renders it a “wine product.” However, Australian wine consumers have previously indicated their acceptance of the use of flavorings in wine. Consumers were found to be significantly more accepting of natural flavorings than of many additives currently used in winemaking (e.g., acid, tannins, oak chips). In this study, we investigated the potential for flavorings to enhance wine aroma and flavor and explored consumer liking of flavored wines. Four inexpensive commercial wines (two Chardonnay and two Shiraz) were flavored with natural additives to enhance aroma and flavor. Descriptive analysis (DA) was performed to determine the sensory profiles of control and flavored wines. Overall, the addition of flavor additives significantly increased the intensity of key attributes (e.g., citrus aroma and honey flavor) and decreased undesirable attributes (e.g., green, earthy notes) in wines. Following DA, consumer tastings (n = 218) were conducted to assess liking of control versus flavored wines. Based on individual liking scores, three hedonic clusters were identified. For Chardonnay, Cluster 1 (C1) liking was driven by passion fruit aroma, C2 by oak flavor and stone fruit and honey aromas, and C3 by butter aroma, honey flavor, and fruit and phenolic length. Drivers for Shiraz included chocolate flavor and red fruit and confectionary aromas for C1, oak flavor and red berry and green aromas for C2, and oak aroma and flavor and red fruit and confectionary aromas for C3. Findings suggest flavorings can enhance wine sensory properties, and for some consumer segments, wine acceptability (or liking).

This study investigated the effect of different contexts on consumers' mood, product-evoked emotions, liking and willingness to pay for wine. Three consumer trials (n=114, 115, and 120) examined 3 different sample sets of 4 Australian commercial Shiraz wines. Each sample set was comprised of a high, medium-high, medium-low and low quality wine as designated by an expert panel. Wine consumers evaluated the same set of wines in the three different contexts, ranging from a highly-controlled laboratory setting to more realistic restaurant and at-home settings. Results showed that high quality wines were liked more and elicited more intense emotions of positive valence compared to wines of lower quality. Context effects were observed on emotions, but not on liking, indicating that although emotions and liking are correlated, the measurement of emotions can deliver additional information over liking. Tasting wine in the restaurant context evoked more intense positive emotions compared to the home and laboratory contexts. Participants' mood before tasting the wines had a strong influence on consecutive product-evoked emotion ratings, but only weak influence on liking ratings. Furthermore, a strong relationship between wine-evoked emotions and willingness to pay was observed, showing that if a wine-evoked more intense emotion of positive valence e.g., contented, enthusiastic, happy, optimistic and passionate participants were willing to pay significantly more for a bottle. Additionally, the absence of negative emotions, even if typically evoked to a very weak extent, is a requirement for an increased willingness to pay. This study indicates it is worthwhile to consider context and emotions in wine testing and marketing.

Aim: The aims of this study were to (1) generate sensory and chemical profiles of commercial Cypriot wines made from the white grape Xynisteri and the red grapes Maratheftiko and Giannoudhi and (2) assess the Australian consumers’ response to these wines.Methods and Results: A Rate-All-That-Apply (RATA) method was used for sensory profiling of the wines (n=56 panellists on Xynisteri and n=60 on Maratheftiko and Giannoudhi) and to guide chemical analysis of flavour compounds. Chemical analysis involved quantitative analysis of aroma compounds by gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and non-targeted profiling of phenolic compounds (non-volatile secondary metabolites) using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Australian wine consumer’s hedonic responses towards wines made from Cypriot grape varieties were also investigated. Consumers completed a questionnaire exploring their demographics, wine consumption habits, environmental/sustainability opinions and neophobic tendencies prior to the tasting. The first tasting (n consisted of six commercial Xynisteri, one Australian Pinot Gris and one Australian unwooded Chardonnay wines. The second (n=114) consisted of three Maratheftiko, one Giannoudhi and one Australian Shiraz wines.Conclusions: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the RATA study identified the following sensory characteristics for Xynisteri wine: stone fruit, dried fruit, citrus, herbaceous, grassy, apple/pear, confectionary, vanilla, creamy, buttery, wood, and toasty. Maratheftiko wines were described as woody, dried fruit, chocolate, herbaceous, confectionary, jammy, sweet and full bodied. Giannoudhi wine was described as woody, dried fruit, chocolate and full bodied. Chemical analysis identified 15 phenolic compounds in the white wine samples and 17 in the red wine samples, as well as 21 volatile/aroma compounds in the white wine samples and 26 in the red wine samples. These chemical compounds were then correlated with sensory data from the RATA and consumer hedonic responses using Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering (AHC) and PCA to determine consumer liking drivers for the wines. Three clusters of consumers were identified for the white and red wines. The overall consumer means for liking indicated that Cypriot wines were liked similarly to Australian wines.Significance and impact of the study: Australia’s changing climate is placing great pressure on the resources for sustainable viticulture. Many vineyards and wineries base their businesses on European grape varieties traditionally grown in regions with abundant water resources. It is therefore necessary for the Australian wine industry to investigate grape varieties that are indigenous to hot climates similar to Australia. The eastern Mediterranean island of Cyprus is one such place with indigenous grape varieties that grow well in a hot climate without irrigation. These popular Cypriot wines have the potential to be popular with Australian consumers, thus offering new grape varieties to the Australian market that are better suited to the changing climate.

Many of us have Friday-after-work-drinks with colleagues, enjoy a glass of wine with friends or family over dinner and raise glasses of sparkling wine for special celebrations. To gain advanced insight into the complex alcoholic beverage market, studies need to account for these contextual factors associated with consumption moments including the social aspects, environmental conditions, and product attributes. This chapter reviews the literature examining context effects on alcoholic beverages with an emphasis on wine. It outlines how the sensory qualities of alcoholic beverages represent only one of many factors influencing the consumer's perception of the drink, that changing the context using different methodologies can alter consumers’ responses and that this may differ depending on the product category. Practical considerations for the conduct of alcoholic beverage research are discussed and the lack of knowledge about context and beverage product reviews by the influential beverage media highlighted.

A Wine Neophobia Scale (WNS) was created from The Food Neophobia Scale (FNS) modified by substituting the word ‘food’ with ‘wine’ and discarding one item. Respondents (n = 207) completed the WNS in order to identify scale items. Analysis indicated that the item “I am very particular about the wine I drink” should be removed. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) followed by Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) provided a unidimensional model that was internally reliable. The final WNS contained eight items, rated on a 9-point scale, and giving a maximum score of 72. The WNS was test/retested, checked for reliability and validated using a cohort of 471 Australian wine consumers and was then applied to 1000 Australian respondents who had consumed wine in the past two weeks. WNS scores were split into quartile segments and respondents who scored 39 or more were identified as wine neophobics. The degree of wine neophobia increased with age, but decreased with higher education and greater income. The demographic categories where wine neophobics predominated were: in the older than 55 years of age group; having no tertiary education; and an average household income of less than AUD$75 K. Wine neophilics were mostly younger than 54 years of age, with a tertiary education and an average household income above AUD$75 K. These results confirmed the potential of the WNS to be used as a tool for pre-screening and segmentation of wine consumers.

This study explored wine consumers&rsquo, preferences towards a novel Australian Shiraz wine product containing Ganoderma lucidum (GL). Wine consumers (n = 124) were asked to complete a questionnaire and participate in a blind tasting of six GL wine products (differing in the amount and timing of GL extract additions). Based on individual liking scores for each GL wine product that was tasted, four hedonic clusters C1 (n = 44, preferred control and low levels of GL additions), C2 (n = 28, preferred control only), C3 (n = 26, generally preferred all GL additions) and C4 (n = 26, preferred 1 g/L additions and 4 g/L post-fermentation) were identified. Sensory attributes of the GL wine products were also profiled with rate-all-that-apply (n = 65) and the 31 sensory attributes that significantly differentiated the wines underwent principal component analysis with the hedonic clusters overlaid to explain consumers&rsquo, preferences. There was a clear separation between hedonic clusters. Sensory attributes and volatile flavor compounds that significantly differentiated the wines were subjected to partial least squares regression, which indicated the important positive drivers of liking among the hedonic clusters. Pepper and jammy aroma, 3-methylbutanoic acid (linked to fruity notes) and non-fruit aftertaste positively drove C2&prime, s preference, whereas spice flavor and hexanoic acid (known for leafy and woody descriptors) drove C3&prime, s liking. There were no positive drivers for C1&prime, s liking but bitter taste, cooked vegetable, and toasty aromas drove this cluster&rsquo, dislike. C4 preferred brown appearance, tobacco aroma, and jammy and cooked vegetable flavors. These findings provide the wine industry with deeper insights into consumers&rsquo, liking towards new GL wine products targeted at the Australasian market.

This chapter provides an overview of consumer segmentation studies applying psychographic variables with a focus on the Australian market, and describes the identity and composition of the resulting wine consumer segments. The comparison of the studies suggests that there are 3 stable segments within the Australian domestic wine market: Connoisseurs , who are very wine knowledgeable, and wine involved; enjoyment oriented social wine drinkers , a segment that is female dominant, who enjoy wine in a social setting; and basic wine drinkers, who enjoy a glass of wine, but are not very wine knowledgeable or wine involved. In addition, selected international segmentation studies are presented to demonstrate global applicability.

Purpose – The purpose of the study was to devise an instrument, labelled the Fine Wine Instrument (FWI), to measure the fine wine behaviour of respondents and then use that base to segment the consumer sample. The behaviour of those respondents who scored highly on the FWI was examined in detail. Design/methodology/approach – An online survey collected quantitative information from a convenience sample of Australian wine consumers (n = 1,017). Using the FWI as the segmentation base, cluster analysis identified three segments of consumers, denoted “Wine Enthusiasts”, “Aspirants” and “No Frills” wine drinkers, and their respective wine-related behaviours were examined. Findings – The Wine Enthusiasts’ segment consumed more wine, spent more money on wine and were more knowledgeable about wine than the other two segments. The demographics of the Wine Enthusiasts’ segment indicated that the members were not consistent with the conventional view of wine connoisseurs, as many were under the age of 35. Their lifetime value to the wine industry was highlighted along with potential targeting strategies. Some structural elements of the Australian domestic wine market were also noted. Practical implications – A segmentation base of a wine market is presented, which the authors argue provides a more sophisticated analysis than other commonly used segmentation bases. Originality/value – This study was the first to segment the Australian market using the recently developed FWI. The study provides the latest information on this market and deeper consumer insights that may permit better business-to-consumer engagement.

Petioles, rachis, and leaves are all matter other than grape (MOG), and although originating from vines, they potentially contaminate primary fermentations of red grape must. Fruit contaminated with high levels of MOG may be downgraded or rejected at the winery; however, management practices such as hand harvesting or fruit sorting may reduce MOG. Petioles are the most common form of MOG to be included in the must, yet little is known about their chemical composition and resulting effects on the sensory and chemical properties of red wines. A descriptive analysis panel (n = 12) examined the sensory profiles of Cabernet Sauvignon wines to which 0.5% or more of MOG (petioles or unripe berries) had been added. This sensory analysis showed that an addition of 10% petioles to the must had a perceived impact on sensory wine qualities, increasing floral aromas and reducing bitterness relative to the sensory qualities of control wines, and resulting in a fuller body than that of wines made with unripe (i.e., green) berries. These sensory results are related to increased terpene concentrations as petioles increase in concentration in the wine must. Methoxypyrazines can also be detrimental contaminants to Cabernet Sauvignon wines. Concentrations of the predominant methoxypyrazine in the wines, 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine, increased with increasing additions of unripe berries to the must. Wines made with 0.5% or more of unripe berries during fermentation were associated with increased perceived acidity in the sensory analysis and an aroma that was more leafy and vegetal green than the aromas of some wines made with added petioles. The results of this study provide winemakers with important information to better understand how grape-harvesting choices may affect the perceived quality and chemical composition of their wines.

This chapter provides an overview of wine consumer segmentation methods and the application of them in wine consumer research. The first section briefly reviews general aspects of consumer segmentation, including segmentation variables and bases. The second part describes different segmentation methodologies and their application for wine consumer segmentation using published studies as examples. The final section covers practical considerations based on the authors' expertise and areas of future research.

Poor water quality and lack of rainfall can lead to higher salt loads in vineyard soil and the production of wine with sodium chloride (NaCl) concentrations that may affect wine quality or exceed regulatory limits. Here, study 1 aimed to determine NaCl sensory thresholds in grape juice and wine so that better harvest and processing decisions could be made regarding salt-affected fruit. A whole-mouth gustatory method was used to determine detection and recognition thresholds of NaCl in water, red and white juices, and wines. The NaCl sensory thresholds were often within legal boundaries; thus, a significant proportion of wine consumers may detect salt in wines at concentrations below the legal NaCl limits. The detection and recognition thresholds of NaCl in grape juice and wine increased with panelist age. Study 2 investigated how NaCl affects wine sensory properties. Sensory evaluation using a trained descriptive analysis panel (n = 9) and chemical and elemental analyses were conducted on four Chardonnay wines made from separate vineyards where the fruit was perceived to contain varying degrees of saltiness and results were compared to Chardonnay wine samples spiked with 0.5 or 1 g/L NaCl. Wines made from fruit grown on salt-affected vines and wines spiked with NaCl had similar sensory characteristics. Salty and soapy attributes were correlated and associated with higher Na and Cl concentrations. Fruit expression was associated with wines containing less Na and Cl. When determining acceptable salt concentrations in juice and wines, winemakers need to consider sensory impacts, legal requirements, and who conducts the sensory assessment.

Much has been written in the popular wine press about the various sensory properties of Australian Shiraz produced from different regions. This study had an objective of exploring whether wine experts would group Shiraz wines from the same region together, following ortho and retro nasal assessments of the wines. A cohort of wine experts and a trained descriptive analysis (DA) panel undertook sensory analysis of 29 Shiraz wines sourced from 10 delimited Australian wine producing regions, plus a multi-regional blended Australian Shiraz and a Northern Rhone Syrah. The expert panel undertook sorting tasks based on their ortho and retro nasal assessment of the wines. Multidimensional scaling (MDS) of the resultant data provided a three dimensional solution that included many attributes commonly associated with Australian Shiraz. Cluster analysis of the MDS and DA data revealed that at least two wines from Canberra, Langhorne Creek, Coonawarra, McLaren Vale, Barossa Valley and Great Western were grouped together. Although wines from the same region may have shared similar sensory attributes, the more diverse the region in terms of geography and meso-climate, the more difficult it was to determine those common sensory attributes. This is the first study to attempt to define the sensory attributes of a number of delimited Australian Shiraz producing regions. The data suggested that there were some sensory similarities between wines from the same region but other factors impact the sensory profile, so to determine regional Shiraz characters more extensive research using these techniques and wines made under controlled conditions would be required.

Berry Sensory Assessment (BSA) is a technique that can help grapegrowers and winemakers to make decisions about harvest date and allocation of grapes. As a structured technique, BSA has been used by grapegrowers, winemakers and researchers for the last 11 years. The number of studies, however, reporting results of the effect of viticultural practices on berry sensory characteristics and wine quality is limited. The extent to which both Australian and New Zealand winemakers and grapegrowers use BSA and their opinions about the application and their expectations of this technique has not been evaluated. The aims of this review are: first, to review the different BSA techniques employed to date within the wine industry and oenological research, and to consider some practical applications of BSA; and second, to reveal and discuss a survey undertaken by Australian and New Zealand winemakers and grapegrowers about current use of BSA. Knowledge gaps in BSA resultant from the review and the survey are identified.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to determine the degree to which wine consumers in South Australia have different liking for white wine styles, and to relate reported liking to wine knowledge and demographic differences.Design/methodology/approachA group of 150 regular white wine drinking consumers from the Adelaide metropolitan area responded to a wine habits and attitudes questionnaire. Consumers were segmented based on self‐reported liking of white wine styles, with three distinct segments identified.FindingsSauvignon Blanc wine likers were mainly younger females with low wine knowledge who reported not drinking Chardonnay wines. Conversely, “Riesling wine likers” were generally older with higher wine knowledge. These consumers were interested in the region, vintage and alcohol level when purchasing white wine. The final group (40 percent of the total sample) had a lower liking for Riesling wines, but liked all types relatively highly, had low to moderate wine knowledge and took more note of expert opinion than the other clusters.Research limitations/implicationsThe findings of this study can be extrapolated to the South Australian population, however, the sample size may restrict the generalisation of the results to the broader Australian population.Originality/valueThe results of this study provide initial insights into the behaviour of white wine consumers and highlight the importance of wine knowledge in differentiating consumer liking. Some strategies for influencing consumers' preference are suggested.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to discover the underlying motivations of Chinese wine consumption.Design/methodology/approachQualitative focus group interviews were performed on 36 Chinese wine consumers and four focus groups were performed, with participants segmented into groups based on age and gender.FindingsThe main findings were that Chinese wine consumers are influenced by face and status. These issues may be affecting their wine consumption behaviours, particularly related to anomalous behaviours such as mixing red wine with lemonade and the rationale for the preference of cork‐closed wine bottles. Furthermore, the notion of wine consumption for health‐related purposes was uncovered and a linkage found with traditional Chinese medicine.Originality/valueWhile research has been conducted on Chinese wine consumers, this paper attempts to uncover the underlying motivations for consumption and finds a linkage between wine consumption and traditional Chinese medicine. Furthermore, this paper links the traditions and beliefs of traditional Chinese medicine with a product category other than food or medicine.

Ten commercial Australian Shiraz wines of diverse origin and quality were hedonically rated by 54 wine and cheese consumers and 22 wine experts. The wines were then paired with a single Cheddar cheese and the consumers asked to rate “ideal” pairings and indicate hedonic liking of the pairs. A descriptive analysis (DA) panel of seven judges evaluated the sensory properties of the wines before and after consumption of the cheese. DA indicated that consumption of the Cheddar cheese before tasting the wine had similar sensory effects on all the wines including a reduction of flavour length and astringency intensity, while the tannin quality became silkier. All wines dominated the cheese flavour but the wine that dominated the cheese flavour the most was the least liked pairing, while the wine that dominated the cheese second most was the most liked pairing. Only nine of the wines, but all of the wine and cheese pairs were liked by the consumers. Two of the top three most preferred Shiraz and cheese pairings were those containing wines that scored highest in quality and were most liked by the wine industry experts and consumers. In contrast, the two least liked wine and cheese pairs included the wines that scored poorly on quality and were not liked. Wine domination of the cheese does not appear to drive the preference for wine and cheese pairs; rather it appears driven by overall preference for the wine alone.

Background and Aims: Flowering and fruitset are principal determinants of grapevine yield. Poor fruitset is said to limit the yield of many varieties in most regions in Australia; however, there is a lack of knowledge of the reproductive performance of most varieties under Australian conditions. Methods and Results: The reproductive performance of Vitis vinifera winegrape varieties – Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Merlot, Nebbiolo, Pinot Noir, Sangiovese, Sauvignon Blanc, Shiraz, Tempranillo, and Zinfandel – was studied in four consecutive growing seasons (commencing in 2004/05) across a range of climatic regions from cool (Adelaide Hills) to warm (Adelaide Plains). Measures of reproductive performance included flower number per inflorescence, fruitset (%), berry number per bunch, coulure index (CI), and millerandage index (MI). Principal component analysis and agglomerative hierarchical classification were used to group the varieties into three classes of reproductive performance. Conclusions: Certain varieties have a reputation of having ‘poor fruitset’ that has been inferred from relatively low berry number per bunch; however, for some of these varieties, it is ‘low flower number per inflorescence’ rather than ‘poor fruitset’ that is the cause of low berry number. Significance of the Study: An improved understanding of the reproductive performance of winegrape varieties has been achieved.

Background and Aims: Despite being a common food and beverage combination today, few scientific studies have examined ideal wine and cheese matches. The current study was designed to have Australian consumers evaluate wine and cheese combinations suggested by industry experts. Methods and Results: Under controlled conditions, 46 wine and cheese consumers examined the ‘ideal’ pairings of eight different cheese and wine styles, using a structured, 12-cm ‘just right’ line scale. The consumers agreed with the experts about six of the eight combinations. Red table wine was marginally more versatile than white table wine for cheese pairings. Cheddar and Gruyere were the most versatile cheeses while a white mould and blue mould were dominant over the wines. The Gewurztraminer and Sangiovese wines were most complementary to the cheeses but the Sauvignon Blanc and white dessert wine were the most difficult to match. Conclusions: These scientific results confirm some of the anecdotal beliefs held regarding the art of wine and food matching. Significance of the Study: The findings will enhance wine and food service professionals' knowledge of how wine and food sensory elements interact and transform one another, promoting better gastronomic experiences for consumers.

Few Australian wine companies have the resources to acquire consumer relevant information to assist their strategic decision-making. This exploratory study examined the relationship between Australian consumers' wine expertise and their self-reported wine related behaviours, such as wine purchasing and consumption. A measure of consumer wine expertise developed specifically for the Australian consumer, comprising a wine knowledge test and an aroma identification (sensory) test, was used to segment 61 wine consumers into three expertise levels. A large positive correlation between wine expertise and formal wine training was demonstrated. Data showed that females dominated the low and males the high expertise groups, respectively. The high expertise level consumers spent more on wine, purchased more bottles and fewer casks per month and consumed more wine in a week than the low and medium expertise groups. Analysis revealed significant differences between the styles of wine consumed by the various expertise levels. A combination of Factor and Cluster analyses generated three distinct consumer segment profiles based on wine purchase drivers. These preliminary data indicate that wine consumers' wine behaviour may be influenced by their wine expertise.

Oak barrels have long been the preferred method for oak maturation of wine, but barrels contribute significantly to production costs, so alternate oak maturation regimens have been introduced, particularly for wines at lower price points. To date, few studies have investigated consumers' acceptance of wines made using non-traditional oak treatments. In this study, two Cabernet Sauvignon wines were aged using traditional (i.e., barrel) and/or alternative (i.e., stainless steel or plastic tanks and vats, with oak wood added) maturation regimens. Chemical and sensory analyses were subsequently performed to determine the influence on wine composition and sensory properties, that is, the presence of key oak-derived volatile compounds and perceptible oak aromas and flavor. The quality of a subset of wines was rated by a panel of 10 wine experts using a 20-point scoring system, with all wines considered technically sound. Consumer acceptance of wines was also determined. Hedonic ratings ranged from 5.7 to 5.9 (on a 9-point scale), indicating there was no significant difference in consumers' overall liking of each wine. However, segmentation based on individual liking scores identified three distinct clusters comprising consumers with considerably different wine preferences. These results justify wine producers' use of alternative oak maturation regimens to achieve wine styles that appeal to different segments of their target market.

Anna M Crump,1 Trent E Johnson,1 Susan EP Bastian,1 Johan Bruwer,1,2 Kerry L Wilkinson1 1School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, The University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, Australia; 2Ehrenberg-Bass Institute, The University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia Abstract: Oak plays an important role in the production of some white wines and most red wines. Yet, consumers’ knowledge of the use of oak in winemaking and their preference for oak-related sensory attributes remains unclear. This study examined the knowledge and attitudes of 1,015 Australian wine consumers toward the use of oak in winemaking. Consumers who indicated a liking of oak-aged wines (n=847) were segmented according to their knowledge of the role of oak in wine production. Four distinct consumer clusters were identified, with significantly different preferences for wine sensory attributes and opinions regarding the use of oak alternatives for wine maturation. One segment comprised more knowledgeable consumers, who appreciate and value traditional oak maturation regimes, for which they are willing to pay a premium price. However, a segment comprising less knowledgeable wine consumers was accepting of the use of oak chips, provided wine quality was not compromised. Winemakers can therefore justify the use of oak alternatives to achieve oak-aged wines at lower price points. The outcomes of this study can be used by winemakers to better tailor their wines to the specific needs and expectations of consumers within different segments of the market. Keywords: maturation, segmentation, wine, wine consumers

Wine is widely regarded as a ‘complicated’ product and for the majority of consumers the purchasing of wine in the retail situation evokes considerable risk. Marketers are therefore constantly and increasingly trying to demystify wine in order to reduce the perceived risk levels of consumers in the purchase situation. Most previous research in the area of perceived risk literature tended to focus on the concept of risk and its measurement rather than on risk‐reduction. This study examined the preferred risk‐reduction strategies (RRS) employed by identified wine‐related lifestyle segments in the Australian wine market and linked these strategies to the wine retail environment. Relying on favourite brands or so‐called ‘safe brand’ buying was found to rank highest as a risk reduction strategy in the commercial (under $15 per bottle) and premium‐to super‐premium ($15‐$25) price ranges while the opportunity to try before buying ranked highest in the ultra‐premium ($25) price range. The results obtained have major implications for retailers and form the foundation for a competitive advantage. It also indicates the direction for future research in this strategically important area of wine consumer behaviour.

The wine industry has been criticised in the past for adopting a mass‐marketing approach but in the current ultra‐competitive wine market the inevitable outcome of a production rather than marketing orientation is almost certain failure. Whereas the Australian domestic wine market is currently experiencing a low growth rate, a precursor to any future growth strategy is a clear understanding of the market. Acceptance of market segmentation as a strategy to target consumers more effectively enhances the focus and differentiation essential to achieve growth in the wine market. Recently a new segmentation approach of lifestyle based on a cognitive deductive perspective that makes lifestyle specific to the area of wine consumption was developed by Bruwer et al. (2001). This process included the development of a wine‐related lifestyle (WRL) measurement research instrument and the identification of five wine‐related lifestyle market segments. In this paper, a study conducted in the Australian wine market on 363 consumers to empirically confirm or disconfirm the previously identified five wine‐related lifestyle segments is reported on. The further theoretically‐driven development and improvement of the WRL research instrument is also described.

Integrated marketing communications and the management of brands is a vital area for research in many industries. The global wine industry is facing significant changes including: retail concentrat...

Yaelle Saltman, Trent E Johnson, Kerry L Wilkinson, Susan EP Bastian Department of Wine and Food, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, The University of Adelaide, Waite Campus, Adelaide, SA, Australia. Abstract: Additives are routinely used in food and wine production to enhance product quality and/or prevent spoilage. Compared with other industries, the wine industry is only permitted to use a limited number of additives. Whereas flavor additives are often used to intensify the aroma and flavor of foods and beverages, the addition of flavorings to wine contravenes the legal definition of wine. Given the current legislation, it is perhaps not surprising that the potential use of food additives in wine production has not been explored. This study therefore investigated Australian wine consumers' acceptance of and attitudes toward the use of additives in food and wine production. Consumers (n=1,031) were segmented based on their self-reported wine knowledge (ie, subjective knowledge). Using these ratings, low (n=271), medium (n=528), and high (n=232) knowledge segments were identified. Consumers considered natural flavorings and colors, and additives associated with health benefits (eg, vitamins, minerals, and omega 3 fatty acids), to be acceptable food additives, irrespective of their level of wine knowledge. In contrast, the use of winemaking additives, even commonly used and legally permitted additives such as tartaric acid, preservatives, oak chips, and tannins, were considered far less acceptable, particularly, by less knowledgeable consumers. Surprisingly, natural flavorings were considered more acceptable than currently used winemaking additives. Consumers were therefore asked to identify the flavors they would most prefer in white and red wines. Fruit flavors featured prominently in consumer responses, eg, lemon and apple for white wines and blackcurrant and raspberry for red wines, but vanilla and/or chocolate, ie, attributes typically associated with oak maturation, were also suggested. Keywords: wine quality, segmentation, natural flavors, artificial flavors, wine knowledge