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Current research on transnational families considers information communication technologies (ICTs or new media) central to sustaining familial ties but also highlights that abilities to stay connected are not the same for all members of transnational families. Previous studies have focused mainly on how migrant parents communicate with their children at origin or on adult migrant children interacting with their parents at ‘home’; hence, the perspectives of youth are missing. Young people take an active part in transnational communications and thereby co-shape transnational relations. Moreover, studies have focused mostly on ‘old’ ICTs such as phone calls, and most recently, Facebook and Skype. As ICTs continually change, we also need to look at new technologies that enable long-distance sociability, giving young people more room for manoeuvre. We address these gaps by investigating how young people who live in Ghana employ WhatsApp to engage with their migrant parents. We show that youth are agentic herein and devise various strategies to experience a sense of being together across geographical distance.

What makes or breaks interdisciplinary collaborations is how well a team can work together. In this chapter, we focus on the work that is behind teamwork. We explain what ‘doing’ interdisciplinary teamwork entails by drawing parallels with the subject of our research: ‘doing’ family. We draw our examples from the transnational child raising arrangements projects (tcra and tcraf-eu), investigating how transnational migrant families ‘do family’ when their members are separated by great geographical distances. Families are not just people related by blood ties or marriage but are defined and held together through the ‘work’ of commitments and obligations consisting of communication, trust, and emotional work. This chapter draws on these elements—communication, trust, and emotions—to unpack the work involved in ‘doing’ teamwork. Teamwork in interdisciplinary research has been discussed but not often in terms of the personal and emotional work that it entails.keywordsinterdisciplinary teamworkemotional workcollaborationcommunicationtrust.

Literature on diaspora engagement in development activities has centred on the contributions of migrating adults to the 'homeland', which range from private transfers to single households, to community development projects. While such studies often focus on the impact of such activities on the country of origin, relatively few have focused on what transpires during development encounters and how this affects migrants', and especially young people's, motivation to engage transnationally over time. This paper combines migration and development, transnational migration studies and second generation 'returns' literature, to address these gaps. It studies the motivations of transnational youth to engage in development encounters, which they referred to as 'giving back', in the context of their mobility trajectories. Drawing on 17 months of multi-sited ethnographic fieldwork in the Netherlands and accompanying young people during trips to Ghana, we show that giving back contributes to a sense of purpose that connects them transnationally. Young people's expectations of giving back were embedded in community narratives, which framed this as a means to 'become successful' in culturally valued ways. While young people sometimes encountered unexpected surprises, emotions experienced during development encounters led to learning that ultimately resulted in enhanced intentions of transnational engagement.

This paper explores how physical mobility shapes migrant youth's changing relationships to their or their parents' country of origin. Increasing numbers of youth in the Global North have a migration background and are transnationally engaged in virtual, imaginative and material mobilities. Yet our knowledge of their physical mobility is lacking, having largely been based on retrospective accounts from the country of residence, resulting in depictions of static relationships to a monolithic country of origin. This study takes a processual approach, focusing on mobility trajectories and exploring the sensorial, embodied and emotional aspects of physical mobility as it unfolds. Drawing on 14 months of mobile ethnographic fieldwork with 20 Ghanaian-background young people (aged 15-25) living in Hamburg, Germany, we focus on visits to Ghana to explore how physical mobility changes relationships to the country of origin over time (across several visits) and space (between different places within one visit). We use Urry's typology of proximity to analyse the specific and changing constellations of people, places and moments that constitute visits and thus shape these relationships. We also reflect on the methodological implications of using three mobile methods: mobility trajectory mapping, following mobility in real-time, and before-and-after interviewing.

Trips by migrant youth to their origin country are seen by institutional actors such as teachers and social workers as disrupting youth's educational progress, and some European countries have financial and legal consequences when these trips take place during the school year. We follow Ghanaian youth living in The Netherlands on their journeys to Ghana and study how they experience such trips and are affected by them. Trips allow young people to reconnect with family and old friends, recollect memories, and confront them with poverty in their country of origin, making them resilient and motivated when facing adversities in school in the Netherlands. This study investigates how young Ghanaians' mobility between Ghana and The Netherlands relates to their educational resilience. Based on 20 months of multi-sited ethnographic research following 30 youths of 16-25 age group, we deploy a socio-ecological approach developed in social psychology to identify three resilience-building mechanisms: connection to motivational others, active recollection and comparative confrontation. These mechanisms have to date remained outside of the purview of resilience research and research on migration and education, as these fields focus on the nation-state rather than the transnational context in which young people operate. They thereby ignore mobility patterns that make other contexts relevant to young people's educational resilience. As such, we expand the socio-ecological model of resilience to include transnational elements and show how mobility can positively relate to education and the resilience of migrant youth.

existing methodologies for researching the lives of young people affected by migration have thus far oversimplified their physical mobility by focusing solely on their first international migration or that of their parents. However, previous research shows that migrant youth are mobile and that mobility plays an important role in their lives. This chapter presents mobility trajectory mapping as a methodological tool to record and study these varied mobility trajectories of migrant-background youth. Mapping trajectories allows researchers to employ a youth-centric and transnational lens by involving young people in the co-creation of knowledge about their experiences of moving between places, and by learning about the meanings they attribute to these experiences. This chapter presents our experiences in developing and implementing this method with 183 ghanaian-background young people in ghana, belgium, germany and the netherlands as part of the multi-sited, interdisciplinary research project “mobility trajectories of young lives (mo-trayl).” by discussing methodological advantages of mobility trajectory mapping and presenting analytical insights into the nature of transnational youth mobility that it facilitates, we show that mobility trajectory mapping offers an alternative way to research migrant-background youth with potentially deep repercussions for how we understand their transnational lives.

This chapter reviews literature on transnational children and young people of migrant background and identifies promising avenues for future research. Transnational children and young people of migrant background are recent subjects of study and have been primarily researched within a sub-field of migration studies, called ‘transnational migration’. Transnational migration studies have demonstrated that people who migrate remain engaged with their home regions while also establishing lives overseas. Likewise, people in migrant origin regions remain linked to migrants overseas in a multitude of ways. Yet most of this scholarship, which has emerged since the 2000s, has focused on adults. In this chapter we investigate recent scholarship that focuses on the ways in which young people of migrant background are transnational and how transnationalism shapes their lives. The chapter identifies three broad strands of literature. One strand, conducted in migrant receiving countries, focuses on young people who have not migrated themselves but whose parents have - the so-called second generation - and who, by consequence, develop transnational identities. A second strand, conducted in migrant origin countries, focuses on young people who did not migrate but whose parents did - the so-called left-behind - and as a result are transnationally engaged. A final strand looks at young people of migrant background who move, often multiple times, between the country where they reside and their or their parents’ country of origin and analyses in what ways these young people are affected by their mobility. This latter strand is the most recent and deserves more attention in future research.

Transnational families in which parents and children reside in different nation states have existed for centuries, yet scholarship has paid attention to this phenomenon only in the past 20 years. The feminization of migration, resulting in more mothers migrating independently and leaving their children in the care of someone else, has contributed to the recent attention. Policy and societal concerns fearing that these separations have an adverse effect on both mothers and children have given rise to a bourgeoning scholarship on transnational families investigating the effects of transnational separation. Studies have found that mothers and children are affected negatively in various dimensions of their well-being. Gender norms are often seen as part of the explanation. As mothers are often the primary care providers, their co-presence is considered a prerequisite to healthy child development. If mothers cannot fulfil this parenting norm, this results in stress and guilt for these mothers and emotional loss for children. Men’s roles as breadwinners is seen as more compatible with their migration. Yet, there are only a limited number of studies that have looked at fathers and comparisons between migrant mothers and fathers are even scarcer. This chapter will discuss studies on transnational mothers and fathers, the effects separation has on them and their families and the differences in these effects amongst family members. While gender norms are taken into account, this chapter will also look at contextual and structural factors that can explain possible differences.

International migration and family life are frequently difficult to reconcile. Valentina Mazzucato, Djamila Schans, Kim Caarls, and Cris Beauchemin focus on three cases (the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, and Senegal) and show how varied the solutions can be, with some families reunifying in the destination country, others back in the country of origin, and still others not reunifying at all but becoming instead “transnational families.” This article was also published on the INED website in English and in French.

Most studies on migration focus on migrants and the effects migration has on the host society. But for every migrant that leaves his or her origin country, there are also family members and loved ones that he/she ‘leaves behind’. This geographic separation has well-being consequences on both sides and involves complex transnational caring arrangements when it concerns dependent children or elderly. Yet, only in the past decade has research turned its attention to the ‘left behind’ or stayers. This chapter provides an overview of this recent literature and discusses the effects migration has for stayer children and elderly. The chapter focuses on the main topic investigated by these studies, namely, the effect of migration on the well-being of those who stay in the origin country. Well-being is broadly defined as mental and physical health, education, social behaviour, household labour and economic security. Qualitative anthropological and sociological in-depth studies are reviewed, as are larger-scale quantitative sociological, demographic and psychological studies.

This special issue aims to address the gap in transnational families studies by identifying if there are common patterns and effects of transnational family life across countries and regions, using cross-country comparative analyses. In this editorial introduction, we highlight the overarching themes emerging from seven papers, which employ new large-scale surveys specifically designed to collect information about transnational family life across different Latin American, African, and Southeast Asian countries and China. We discuss how these comparative studies offer new ways of understanding transnational families by focusing on their prevalence, composition, the experiences of their members, and how these change over time. We also highlight how differing and changing notions of care over space and a person's lifetime influence how transnational families are created, reproduced, maintained, and experienced. In general, the issue as a whole emphasises the need to take structural factors in both sending and receiving contexts into account when studying the form that transnational families take, how this changes over time, and the general and specific gendered effects they have on different members.

This chapter explores trends in migration and return from ghana between 1975–2008. Taking advantage of the mafe (migration between africa and europe) data, it offers rare quantitative evidence on the characteristics of migration from ghana. The results show that migrant realities are complex, change over time and can involve back and forth movements between countries. Migrants are found to frequently circulate between a destination country and ghana, be it for visits or for longer periods but without a definitive return. This suggests evidence of transnational lifestyles. Nevertheless, the opportunity to return is not equal for all migrants as our results show.

This chapter investigates family life in the context of international migration between ghana and europe. Families engage in cross-border practices, such as nuclear and extended family members receiving remittances, goods, phone calls and visits from migrants abroad. Importantly, there is also evidence of reverse remittances, that is, flows from households in ghana to their migratory contacts abroad. Transnational family forms, in which one or more members of the nuclear family are living abroad while the other members remain in the home or another country, are common. The extent to which migrants live transnationally or together with their nuclear family depends on their individual socio-economic and migration-related characteristics, but also on the destination country’s policies and structures. Furthermore, transnational families do not always reunify and when they do, they often reunify in ghana rather than the country of destination.keywordstransnational family lifecontact migrationmigrant abroadghanaian migrantsnuclear family membersthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

This chapter gives an overview of the patterns of African migration using quantitative data from the MAFE surveys. Three broad topics are addressed: (1) patterns of mobility, focusing on trends in departures, returns and circulation, (2) profiles of migrants, and (3) migration routes and strategies. Using extensive data on three origin countries and six destination countries, it identifies some common patterns and trends, as well as heterogeneity and changes in African migration. A key finding is that African migration is diverse. Trends in departures and returns have developed differently across countries, and migrants’ profiles and motives for departure also vary widely by destination and origin country. While migration to Europe has generally become more complex, strategies and routes have also varied more widely across origin and destination countries.

In this chapter, we use the MAFE data to study the relationships between migration and family in the context of DR Congo and Europe. Taking advantage of the multi-sited nature of the data, we show that transnational families are quite common. Two thirds of all households from the region of Kinshasa declared having migrant members abroad (whatever their place of residence). Conversely, using the data collected in Europe, we show that a quarter of Congolese migrants in Belgium and UK still had close relatives in Congo at the time of the survey (spouse or children). Adopting a longitudinal approach, we show that living apart across borders is quite often a long-lasting arrangement for Congolese couples, as well as for their children. Results also show that reunification is not a one-way phenomenon: families also reunify in the origin country, when the migrants return. Results suggest that transnational families result from a mix of personal choices and structural constraints.

While family reunification has become a major concern in europe, with the view that migrants overuse their right to reunite, this chapter shows that senegalese migrants are largely oriented towards their origin country. Migrants in europe are predominantly engaged in transnational families, their spouse(s) and/or child(ren) being left behind in senegal. They thus live transnational lives, involving comings and goings and various sorts of transfers and contacts. This pattern echoes the multi-residential family systems observed that have long been observed within senegal. Benefiting from the transnational and longitudinal nature of the mafe data, this chapter challenges the widely shared assumption that family reunification in europe is the normal path followed by most migrants. The statistical results show that “living apart together” across borders is a long-lasting arrangement for many senegalese migrants: 10 years after migration, 82% of the married migrants who left their spouses behind are still separated from them; and 88% of those who left a child behind in senegal are still separated from it. It is quite common for such periods of separation to be ended by reunification at origin (i.e. In senegal), when the migrant returns. As regards reunification with left-behind children, this is more common than reunification in europe. On average, migrants who maintain a transnational family life are more vulnerable than other migrants: they are more frequently undocumented, less educated and of lower socio-economic status. In the end, the high prevalence of transnational families appears to be a mixed product of personal (individual or family) choices and policy constraints.keywordssenegalese migrantsmafe datatransnational familiesfamily reunificationdakar regionthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Studying globalization requires a global perspective. Methodologically, this means that investigating phenomena that occur in and influence multiple places, or investigating how phenomena occurring across multiple places are connected to each other. Multi-sited fieldwork is one way to approach this practical problem. It involves designing research which incorporates different places and times into a single researchable question. In this chapter, we present some theoretical considerations and practical possibilities for executing multi-sited research. To do so, we first discuss how globalization can be conceived of through simultaneity and complexity, how phenomena are often taking place in multiple locations through simultaneous interconnection and with complex causes and effects. An important part of globalization research through multi-sited designs is investigating the connections and disconnections of simultaneous and complex activities and events. We also discuss what multi-sited research is, and what it is not; in other words, how some research designs may incorporate multiple locations, yet not effectively be multi-sited studies of interconnectivity. Finally, we give some examples of how multi-sited research can be accomplished. Our examples are taken from our own research, as well as research executed by anthropologists, sociologists and geographers over many different topics in globalization: migration, transnationalism and diaspora; high-level and low-level cross-border economic activity; and elite mobilities on a global scale. While many of these topics can be studied through a single site, each of these, and topics beyond them, has the potential to be studied using multi-sited fieldwork. Drawing on these examples, we give some guidelines and advice on how to prepare and execute a research design that brings new insights to a problem by incorporating multiple sites.

This chapter provides a descriptive and comparative analysis of transnational families with members located in africa and europe. By comparing both countries of origin and destination, differences in family arrangements are found among ghana, senegal and the democratic republic of congo as well as within these groups depending on the european destination countries. Findings show that families in origin countries and migrants overseas maintain active relationships through remittance sending and receiving, contact via telephone and visits. This involves nuclear as well as extended family members. Transnational family forms are most commonly associated with dates of arrival and legal status of migrants overseas. Furthermore, family and gender norms at origin, migration motivations, destination country family reunification and migration policies, and destination country characteristics related to language, employment opportunities and educational system help to explain the differences found in the prevalence of transnational families in the different countries studied.keywordssenegalese migrantstransnational family lifefamily reunification policiesghanaian migrantscongolese migrantsthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

When collecting migrants' life stories, researchers often report on the role of chance encounters in influencing the way migration trajectories have taken shape or how migrants have managed their lives in a new country. Aside from reporting on such encounters, however, there have been no explicit efforts to theorise chance or to make it central to in-depth analysis in migration studies. This paper aims to theorise the role of chance encounters in migrants' trajectories by drawing on insights from the psychology literature of chance encounters and life paths. Our analysis of the role of chance encounters, structured by the interplay between environmental and personal factors, suggests that how people deal with chance is an influential factor in the ways people migrate from the Global South to the Global North and manage their lives in transit. The paper makes use of evidence collected among 46 African migrants in Ukraine during 7 months of field research in 2011-2012 and reflects on the methodological implications in studying chance. Copyright (C) 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

How migration policies affect family mobility and relationships is a new and emerging area of study within transnational family literature. This chapter contributes to this literature by providing an in-depth examination of ghanaian migrant mothers’ encounters with dutch family migration policies and the impacts such policies have on their pathways to family reunion and the consequences for family relationships. The data come from qualitative research with 32 female ghanaian migrants in the netherlands. Adopting a gender-sensitive approach, our study shows discrepancies between the normative frameworks that underlie formal conditions to family reunion and female migrants’ family lives. Moreover, it shows that restrictive migration policies constrain women’s flexibility, a key aspect of ghanaian family life, and shape dependencies and inequalities within families.keywordsdestination countrymigration policyfamily reunionfamily migrationresidence permitthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Session 1: Children (Chair: Takyiwaa Manuh) http://fasos-research.nl/tcra/files/2013/05/MJK_Draft-VM-Program_March-28-29-2013-21-2-2.pdf

The objective of this paper - using quantitative data of MAFE – is to provide an overview of the changing patterns of African migration in the MAFE countries. Three broad topics are addressed: (1) trend in departures and returns, (2) profiles of migrants, and (3) migration routes. The paper is by nature mainly descriptive, and has not the ambition of identifying determinants of migration as such. However, by describing major changes over the last 30 years, this paper suggests possible links with changing political, economic and policy contexts in both origin and destination countries.

Session 2: Parents & Caregivers (Chair: Marzia Grassi) http://fasos-research.nl/tcra/files/2013/05/MJK_Draft-VM-Program_March-28-29-2013-21-2-2.pdf

Migration has been part of people’s experience in many parts of Africa throughout history (De Bruin et al. 2001) and Ghana is no exception. Migration flows were typically regional due to commerce, forced labor and circulatory nomadic routes. Over the last decades however, migration patterns extended geographically with larger shares of migrants moving to Europe and North America. Even within these regions, African migrant flows have been diversifying (Grillo & Mazzucato 2008). Yet little comparative empirical data exist on migration flows between Africa and Europe and many of the characteristics and changes of these flows are still largely unknown. The objective of this chapter is to first describe international migration patterns from Ghana using the quantitative MAFE household data collected in Kumasi and Accra, Ghana, and second to focus on migration from Ghana to Europe, and back, specifically as it concerns flows between Ghana, The Netherlands and the United Kingdom. This second focus uses the MAFE biographic data collected both in Ghana and in Europe.

This study analyzes returns to investments in Niger's research and technology transfer system for millet, sorghum, and cowpea between 1975 and 1991. Sixty-eight percent of the country's public-sector outlays for agricultural research and 58% of its agricultural researchers were devoted to research on these three crops between 1986 and 1990. Most of this research was done by INRAN, the national agricultural research institute of Niger (Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique du Niger).

This study analyzes returns to investments in Niger's research and technology transfer system for millet, sorghum, and cowpea between 1975 and 1991. Sixty-eight percent of the country's public-sector outlays for agricultural research and 58% of its agricultural researchers were devoted to research on these three crops between 1986 and 1990. Most of this research was done by INRAN, the national agricultural research institute of Niger (Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique du Niger).

Increases in migration from developing countries to industrialized nations results in family members living in different countries, having to arrange care for young and elderly at a distance. A common form that these transnational families take is when a parent migrates, leaving his or her children in the care of someone in the home country. This results in transnational child raising arrangements (tcras) composed of migrant parents and their children and caregivers in the countries of origin. Transnational migration studies have begun to study this phenomenon, yet they tend to give prevalence to relationships between migrant parents, especially mothers, and children. Caregivers are not a focus. This is a consequence of researchers being guided by western conceptualizations of the family where prevalence is given to the nuclear family living in geographical proximity. This paper focuses on a recent study in which all members in a transnational child raising arrangement are the focus: the migrant overseas, the caregiver or multiple caregivers at home and the child him or herself. The study uses a mixed methods approach, which incorporates surveys of children and parents, the mapping of child raising networks with the different actors of a tcra (parents, caregivers and children), and an in-depth, multi-sited ethnographic study of a select number of child raising networks, giving equal attention to all members of a tcra. This paper focuses on the second method and highlights three contributions that such a method makes to our understanding of tcras. First, the mapping of child raising networks helps to identify the perceptions of care held by different members of a tcra. Secondly, discrepancies and similarities between different actors’ perspectives help to understand how tcras function. Finally, mapping child raising networks with all actors involved, gives children a voice which is an element often missing in research about children.

A growing number of young people in origin countries reside there without one or both parents due to their parents’ international migration. However, most of the current literature overlooks the perceptions and agency of these youth due to increasing attention on what migrant parents and local caregivers do for stayer youth's experiences and aspirations. Contemporary youth studies call on emerging scholarships like this study to engage with youth for an extensive understanding of their experiences and aspirations. This is a case study of Ghanaian stayer youth's lives. I “followed” thirty-eight stayer youth for 15 months to understand their experiences and aspirations through a youth-centric ethnography. This study shows that stayer youth are agentic in shaping their experiences and aspirations over time within their transnational family context. These young people show their agency through the way they employ ICTs to maintain and shape their relationships with their parents abroad; how they mobilize broader local and transnational social support networks to ensure their educational trajectories; and the way they adapt their aspirations to match the resources that are available to them. This study shows the importance of going beyond the dyad or triad (migrant parent-stayer youth or migration parent-caregiver-stayer youth) that has characterised most transnational family studies, to account for all relationships or interactions that shape these youth's experiences and aspirations.

One in five young people across the European Union has a migration background, meaning that either they or their parents were born abroad. Many of these young people engage in visits to the country of origin on a regular basis and/or have been mobile before they migrated to Europe. Even though there is much research on the impact of migration on young people, their actual mobility has hardly been investigated. This dissertation investigates how the physical mobility to and within Ghana shapes the lives of Ghanaian-background youth living in Belgium. It does so by examining their ‘mobility trajectories’, that is, not only the migration move but all movements young people undertake over time and across geographically distinct localities, the concomitant family constellations these moves entail, and what happens during mobility. Ethnographic research in Belgium and Ghana with 25 young people of Ghanaian-background reveals how youth use their own mobility and digital media to create and maintain effective engagements, meaning the connections with people and places in the country of origin. These connections in turn shape experiences with family reunification and separation, personal growth and future pathways, and their relationship with the country of origin.

This thesis investigates the ‘transnational youth mobility trajectories’ of migrant youth, meaning all the moves that young people make in their lives, including migrations but also family visits, holidays, internships, and transitions between different school systems. An increasing proportion of young people around the world have a migration background, and recent research shows that many migrant youth in Europe travel regularly to their country of origin. Nevertheless, we know very little about the way mobility affects their lives. As part of the ‘Mobility Trajectories of Young Lives’ project (www.motrayl.com), this thesis focused on Ghanaian-background youth (15-25 years) living in Hamburg. It shows that migrant youth are very mobile, that the frequency and reasons for their mobility change over time, and that mobility has important effects on their lives in the country of residence. Experiences in the country of origin – including schooling, family environments, and other important relationships – can provide valuable resources, like confidence and motivation, and other forms of support that help migrant youth navigate schooling and life in the country of residence.

One in five young people across the European Union has a migration background, meaning that either they or their parents were born abroad. Many of these young people engage in visits to the country of origin on a regular basis and/or have been mobile before they migrated to Europe. Even though there is much research on the impact of migration on young people, their actual mobility is hardly investigated. Against this backdrop, this dissertation investigates how the physical mobility to and within Ghana shapes the lives of Ghanaian-background youth living in Belgium. It does so by examining their ‘mobility trajectories’, that is, not only the migration move but all geographical moves young people undertake over time and across geographically distinct localities, the concomitant family constellations these moves entail, and the emotional and embodied experiences young people have during mobility. Multi-sited ethnographic research in Belgium and Ghana with 25 young people of Ghanaian-background reveals how youth create and maintain affective engagements with people and places in the country of origin through their own mobility and digital media use, and how these connections in turn shape experiences with family reunification, personal growth, and their relationship with the country of origin. By including both the country of origin and residence, and by analyzing mobility over the life course and in real time, this dissertation gives insights into how young people give meaning to their transnational lives and mobility experiences, and ultimately provides a deeper understanding of the temporalities, emotionalities and impacts of youth mobility.

Many young people in Europe with a migration background grow up regularly visiting their or their parents’ country of 'origin'. Although mobility is an intrinsic part of these young people’s lives, little is known about what transpires during their trips and how this affects them. Based on 17 months of ethnographic fieldwork in the Netherlands and Ghana, this dissertation investigates how young Dutch-Ghanaians’ mobility trajectories shape their engagements with the country of ‘origin’ (i.e. transnational engagements). The concept of ‘mobility trajectories’ captures all the moves young people make over time and across geographically distinct localities, and the shifting family constellations that this entails. By looking at young people’s current trips (undertaken when they enter into adulthood) as they unfold and as part of broader trajectories, this dissertation reveals changes in terms of the people, practices and places that are important to young people during trips to Ghana throughout their life-course. More importantly, it captures the emotions and meaning-making processes underlying young people’s evolving transnational engagements. Ultimately, this dissertation provides a more nuanced understanding of the factors that shape young people’s connections to more than one country as they build a future for themselves.

‘Nederlanders and buitenlanders: A sociolinguistic ethnographic study of ethnic categorization among secondary school pupils’ is a study based on nine months of ethnographic fieldwork among pupils of the vocational track of a secondary school in Venlo, the Netherlands. Many of these pupils had a migration background, and though they were born in the Netherlands, they often referred to themselves as buitenlander (‘foreigner’), Marokkaan (‘Moroccan’), or Turk (‘Turk’), and referred to others without migration backgrounds as Nederlanders (‘Dutch people’).In this dissertation, van de Weerd combines ethnographic descriptions of the local context with ethnomethodological analyses of interactions to analyze such self- and other-categorizations. Although the use of categories such as Nederlander and buitenlander are commonly interpreted as straightforward indications of (dis) identification with a country or ethnic identity, it is argued that their meanings are constructed and negotiated in local interactions and are therefore much more complex. The pupils in this study, for instance, regularly discussed categories in association with certain clothing styles, language, or behavior, or jokingly teased each other by speaking negatively about these categories. The dissertation furthermore analyzes the relation between categorization practices and the use of different linguistic resources such as Dutch, Limburgish, Turkish, Arabic, and/ or Berber. ‘Nederlanders and buitenlanders’ may be of relevance to researchers interested in categorization in interaction, ethnicity, identification, the effects of diversification outside the metropolitan area, and more broadly, linguistic ethnography and sociocultural linguistics., Dans Néerlandais et étrangers, j'étudie la façon dont les élèves du secondaire à Venlo, ‘classe 3/4b,’ se sont référés aux hiérarchies sociales locales et sociétales, et comment ils ont traité ce sujet, en se catégorisant eux-mêmes et les uns les autres en termes ethniques et en utilisant différents moyens linguistiques. La question de recherche, introduite dans le Chapitre 1, est la suivante: Quelles sont les significations et les fonctions respectives des catégories ethniques et des moyens linguistiques utilisés pour les élèves et les enseignants de la classe 3/4b ?J'ai mené cette étude sur la base des données recueillies pendant neuf mois de travail ethnographique sur le terrain avec les élèves, et en analysant les interactions entre les élèves, les enseignants et moi-même, principalement avec l'analyse de la catégorisation des membres (ACM) et l'analyse de la conversation (AC).À peu près la moitié des élèves de la classe 3/4b sont d'origine étrangère et, bien qu'ils soient nés aux Pays-Bas, ils se classent régulièrement, eux- mêmes et les autres, sous les étiquettes ‘étranger’, ‘Marocain’ et ‘Turc’, et qualifient les autres (mais pas eux-mêmes) de ‘Néerlandais’. Cette catégorisation faisait partie des interactions quotidiennes, que ce soit en se taquinant, en faisant ses devoirs ou en racontant des ragots sur des connaissances. L'utilisation de divers moyens linguistiques (en plus du néerlandais standard, les élèves ont utilisé l'arabe, le berbère, le turc, et les dialectes régionaux de Venlo et Tegelen, entre autres, dans leurs interactions) s'est également avérée importante pour élaborer ces catégories et en discuter., Doctorat en Langues, lettres et traductologie, info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Journeys of irregular migrants are often far from easy, straightforward moves from one country to another. This is typically explained in relation to restrictive migration policies, and by migrants’ difficulties with providing financial support to their social networks in their countries of origin. Such reasoning is based on assumptions about the anticipated course of the journey and the role of migrants’ social networks. This thesis questions such assumptions and investigates the mechanisms by which journeys evolve. It shows how this evolution is related to changes taking place in migrants’ social networks and the experience of critical events. The findings stress the importance of viewing migration as part of people’s life trajectories, which can take unexpected and uncalculated turns.

Cette these examine la facon dont les migrants soudanais aux Pays-Bas et au Royaume-Uni organisent leur protection sociale, pour eux et leurs familles au Soudan, localement et au-dela des frontieres. Dans notre monde globalise, de plus en plus de personnes vivent au-dela des frontieres nationales, developpant des attaches et des responsabilites dans plus d’un Etat-nation. Toutefois, les systemes de protection sociale formels traditionnels ont ete concus pour repondre aux besoins de populations sedentaires liees a un seul pays. Dans ce contexte, cette these examine les strategies que les migrants developpent pour couvrir leurs propres besoins de protection sociale et/ou ceux de leurs familles, englobant une serie d'elements formels et informels provenant de differentes institutions (Etats, marches, organisations du tiers secteur ou reseaux sociaux informels). En prenant la famille elargie comme unite analytique principale, cette these montre que meme si certaines ressources formelles sont disponibles pour des individus migrants, elles peuvent ne pas correspondre aux choix privilegies pour la protection sociale de leur famille. En prenant en consideration le contexte soudanais, cette these souligne l’importance des normes socio-culturelles du pays d’origine sur la maniere dont le soutien intra-familial, en particulier les soins, doit etre fourni. Cette these est basee sur les donnees collectees durant 14 mois d'ethnographie multi-situee conduite avec des migrants aux Pays-Bas et au Royaume-Uni, et leurs familles au Soudan.

Migrant parents cannot always migrate with their children. This dissertation examined how the contexts of the home and host countries influenced transnational family dynamics. Ethnographic research among Ghanaian migrant parents in the Netherlands and the children they left behind in Ghana reveals that cultural norms around shared parenting facilitate translational family relationships and mitigate negative effects on individual family members, while at the same time making traditional practices more challenging. The legal and economic status of migrant parents and the options for family reunification also determine how transnational parenting is practised and what the consequences are for individual family members and the stability of the family unit as a whole.

This study is about Angolan and Nigerian parents who live in the Netherlands, but whose children reside in the country of origin. It examines whether this separation effects the wellbeing of the migrant parent. The study reveals that transnational separation can indeed have a negative impact on the wellbeing of the parents. However, this separation does not have to be problematic if good family arrangements are made, such as maintaining regular contact with the child. Furthermore, the context of migration and integration proves a crucial factor. Undocumented migrants and migrants with a low socioeconomic status are particularly prone to reduced wellbeing, partly due to limitations in migration policy that can hinder physical contact with the child.

This dissertation studies the effects of remittances and return migration on households and communities in Burundi and shows that in a conflict-affected country such as Burundi, which is one of the poorest countries the world, migration does not have the anticipated development-boosting effect that comes forward from the policy and academic literature on migration and development. The economic development impact of remittances, for example, was limited because remittances did not reach the citizens who needed it the most. Similarly, return migration led to structural inequalities between return and non-return households in terms of land ownership and was found to negatively affect the living conditions of non-return households as well. The findings of this research highlight the necessity of a basic level of development before migration can positively affect development.

This dissertation examined the relationship between family-member migration and the psychosocial health of children remaining in the origin country. Using survey data collected in Moldova and Georgia, analyses revealed that child-migrant separation does not correspond to universally negative child emotional health outcomes. In Georgia, no form of family-member migration corresponded to unfavourable psychosocial health outcomes; in Moldova, only the migration of a father corresponded to worse outcomes, and only among boys. These results suggest that the potential impacts of migration on child psychosocial health are heterogeneous and shaped by factors such as the gender of the migrant and child.

This thesis provides insight into the role of international migration in how Ghanaian couples form, transform or dissolve. It investigates if, when and where families live geographically separate from each other and if, when and where they reunify. Employing a transnational approach, this dissertation incorporated the notion that migrants are embedded in multiple contexts. This means that: 1) the contexts of the sending and receiving countries are taken into account, 2) couples that did not migrate are included, and 3) the findings are contextualized by considering the cultural and familial norms of the sending country. This thesis demonstrates that the sending country context as well as the receiving country context affects the way in which families live transnationally or reunify. Comparing migrants and non-migrants showed that international migration shapes the transnational family, and it also reveals that some types of living arrangements are related to socio-cultural practices in the sending country, which emphasizes the importance of taking the sending country context into account when studying processes related to international migration. At the same time, restrictive policies and different normative contexts in receiving countries also influence the formation and transformation of transnational family life.