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This article investigates the Arabic component of the Standard Swahili lexicon, aiming to identify the Omani Arabic dialect which comprises the dominant donor of loanwords to Swahili. I isolate words from this “donor dialect” from other Arabic dialects that have influenced Swahili, and compare this lexical archive with data on the dialectology of Omani Arabic phonology and verbal morphology. I find that, contrary to widespread assumptions, documented Arabic from Oman’s mountainous interior, the source region of Omani settlers, has significant differences from the donor dialect. This holds true for fieldwork done in the nineteenth century and in the twenty-first. I characterize the donor dialect to the fullest extent possible, given the Swahili data, and find that it is closest to modern Zanzibari Arabic, which may be its descendant. I proceed to review how a better understanding of the donor dialect can clear up errors made in the literature of Swahili history and historical linguistics, and finally provide etymologies for twenty-two Swahili words that are likely borrowings from Omani Arabic but frequently attributed to other sources, due to being borrowings within Omani Arabic itself.

É unha recensión, non precisa resumo.

Previous research on loan word accommodation has shown that English-origin verbs in Present-day Dutch and French-origin verbs in Late Middle English are subject to biases ([AUTHOR2] 2014; [AUTHOR1] & [AUTHOR2] subm.; [AUTHOR2] & [AUTHOR1] subm.). In both contact settings, loan verbs are disproportionally frequent in non-finite and morphologically unmarked forms as compared to native verbs. We, therefore, refuted Wohlgemuth's (2009) typology-based argument that inflection does not hinder loan word adoption. This follow-up corpus study demonstrates that accommodation biases are also present in loan adjectives. Concretely, French loan adjectives are more prevalent in predicative than in attributive syntactic position as compared to native adjectives (PREDICATIVE bias), and they are more prevalent in uninflected than in inflected forms (MARKEDNESS bias). The predicative bias is found to rank stronger than the markedness bias, which is consistent with the findings for verbs. Additionally, biases are more pronounced in the English-Dutch than in the French-Middle English contact setting. ispartof: Neuphilologische Mitteilungen vol:123 issue:2 pages:6-31 status: published

Previous research on loan word accommodation has shown that English‑origin verbs in Present‑day Dutch and French‑origin verbs in Late Middle English are subject to usage biases. In both language‑contact settings, loan verbs are disproportionally frequent in non‑finite and morphologically unmarked forms as compared to native verbs. The present study demonstrates that accommodation biases are also found in loan adjectives. Concretely, loan adjectives are more prevalent in predicative than in attributive syntactic position as compared to native adjectives (predicative bias), and they are more prevalent in uninflected than in inflected forms (markedness bias). The predicative bias is found to rank stronger than the markedness bias, which is consistent with the findings for verbs. Additionally, biases are more pronounced in the French‑Middle English than in the English‑Dutch contact setting. The findings indicate that direct insertion of loan-words, despite being the cross-linguistically most frequent strategy for loan word integration, is not free of obstacles, possibly due to processing costs specifically associated with loan words.

論文 Articles

論文 Articles

Adverbs of degree are prone to undergo change, and new adverbs frequently emerge through grammaticalisation. These adverbs tend to adhere to various syntactic and semantic restrictions that govern their usage depending on their degree of grammaticalisation (Klein 1998). During the grammaticalisation process, they first tend to expand in function and then become more specialised (Bolinger 1972, Klein 1998). This article provides documentation for the usage of the different adverbs of degree in Early Middle Dutch, and draws comparisons with Modern Dutch in order to shed light on the changes that led to the present situation. Using data from the Corpus Gysseling (2013), the present study focuses on eight adverbs. These include adverbs of high degree (harde, vele, sere, grotelike, utermaten), low degree (een deel, iewet), a negative polarity item (buere) and a modifier of comparatives. Some of these are still around in Modern Dutch, but with differences in distribution (veel) or in register (zeer), while others have disappeared (een deel). We present evidence that distributional patterns may be preserved even when the adverbs themselves are replaced by other expressions. We also found that the high degree adverbs show greater distinctions than those of low degree.

Adverbs of degree are prone to undergo change, and new adverbs frequently emerge through grammaticalisation. These adverbs tend to adhere to various syntactic and semantic restrictions that govern their usage depending on their degree of grammaticalisation (Klein 1998). During the grammaticalisation process, they first tend to expand in function and then become more specialised (Bolinger 1972, Klein 1998). This article provides documentation for the usage of the different adverbs of degree in Early Middle Dutch, and draws comparisons with Modern Dutch in order to shed light on the changes that led to the present situation. Using data from the Corpus Gysseling (2013), the present study focuses on eight adverbs. These include adverbs of high degree (harde, vele, sere, grotelike, utermaten), low degree (een deel, iewet), a negative polarity item (buere) and a modifier of comparatives. Some of these are still around in Modern Dutch, but with differences in distribution (veel) or in register (zeer), while others have disappeared (een deel). We present evidence that distributional patterns may be preserved even when the adverbs themselves are replaced by other expressions. We also found that the high degree adverbs show greater distinctions than those of low degree.

The Red River Delta in general and Thăng Long in Hà Nội in particular have been the political, economic, and cultural center of Vietnam for the past thousand years. This has led to an extremely complex agglomeration of different population groups across the region. Apart from the local residents who speak Austroasiatic languages, there have been other residents who historically used Austronesian, Tai-Kadai, and Sino-Tibetan languages in this area. Through an interdisciplinary approach with a focus on historical linguistics, this article aims to explain the origins and meaning of “Bà Đanh,” the name of a famous pagoda in Northern Vietnam. The findings indicate that “Bà Đanh” emerged from the phonetic Vietnamization of the name of “Po Yang Dari” goddess. This is proof that the Cham people, while coexisting with the Vietnamese in the Red River Delta, not only preserved their cultural identity but also established distinct characteristics that endure to this day.

This paper is an investigation of kinship terms in Vietnamese, including varieties used nation-wide and those preserved in dialects. With an approach based mainly on language databases, especially the Mon-Khmer Etymological Database, combined with cultural and historical knowledge, this study aims to discuss and provide additional evidence with respect to the development of the kinship term system in the Vietnamese language. Historical linguistic evidence supplemented by anthropological information supports the Austroasiatic origin of some terms designated after-ego generations. The study also proposes some hypotheses to explain the diversity of the female kinship terms among Vietnamese dialects, in which terms referring to mothers can be assumed less likely to be the consequence of any language contact and therefore unlikely to be borrowed. Meanwhile, the origin of terms referring to fathers cannot be determined with certainty, so further research should be done to investigate those terms.

This study examined the ways in which the three Old English front vowels /æ(ː)/, /øː/ and /y(ː)/ were orthographically represented in the 7th and 8th centuries. Data was collected from manuscripts, epigraphy and coin-legends; it was analysed first by Anglo-Saxon region before turning to consider wider, pan-Anglo-Saxon trends. /æ(ː)/ was represented almost universally by ‹ae› in manuscripts. Allographic variation in the representation of this vowel was found to be systematic; it was suggested that the variation was symptomatic of the ecclesiastical background of scribes, with the ligature «æ» being disfavoured by scribes who had been trained in regions which had been reached first by Continental (rather than Irish) Christian missionaries. Despite the variety in allographs, an explanation for orthographic consistency was sought in the phonology of contemporary Latin, which contained a vowel acoustically very similar to Old English /æ(ː)/. In contrast, numismatic evidence returned significant variation between ‹AE› and ‹E›, some of which was understood to reflect limitations relating to the medium of writing. The vowel exhibiting the most conspicuous orthographic variation was /øː/, for which ‹oe› and ‹oi› were both found to be common representations. While ‹oe› was used across Anglo-Saxon England, ‹oi› was limited to Northumbria, and was therefore considered to be a uniquely Northumbrian representation. The variation between ‹oi› and ‹oe› in Northumbria was associated, on the one hand, with competing traditions (Continental and Irish) in the teaching of Latin literacy, and the lack of a model in Latin orthography for the representation of /øː/ on the other. The orthographic representation /y(ː)/ was discovered to be strikingly uniform both diatopically and diachronically. With very few exceptions, this vowel was represented by ‹y› in manuscripts and ‹Y› or ‹ᚣ› in epigraphy and coin-epigraphy. This uniformity in the use of ‹y›/‹Y› was attributed to the availability of Greek language education in the 7th century at Archbishop Theodore’s school in Canterbury. Through the analysis of early Old English orthography, this study was also able to differentiate between related but separate Old English protothemes with important implications for our understanding of the Old English onomasticon.

Heine, Rottland and Vossen (1979) proposed a Cushitic language termed proto-Baz on the basis of Cushitic loans in South Nilotic. Similar and additional proposals are in Christopher Ehret’s PhD thesis (1971). In a critical review of the evidence in the light of data and reconstructions that have become available since, we argue that (1) there is no compelling evidence that the source must have been a separate language, and (2) the reliable cognates come from a range of Cushitic sources. In the presentation we hone in on Ehret’s proposals of South Cushitic influence on Kalenjin. We show that there is indeed strong evidence for influence of Proto Tanzanian Cushitic (=Proto West-Rift SC) on Proto-Kalenjin, adding more candidate lexical transfers. What does this tell us about the history of these peoples: where and when did the contact happen? Which other earlier languages were contemporary in the area?, Note: This talk has not gone through a process of peer review, and findings should therefore be treated as preliminary and subject to change. Acknowledgement and citation: Mous, Maarten and Christian Rapold. 2023. Cushitic–Nilotic Contacts: Tanzanian Cushitic and Kalenjin. Talk given at the Rift Valley Network Webinar Series. 14/06/2023.

Corpus linguistics can be divided into two major avenues of research — corpus-based: Searching a corpus based on preexisting hypotheses or intuitions, and corpus-driven: An unbiased search of a corpus independent of any framing hypothesis or intuition. Corpus-driven methods have been touted to be more proficient in identifying previously undocumented patterns. This article revisits the variation observed in Old English (OE) by first discussing some of the existing corpus-based studies and their findings. Next, a corpus-driven methodology of exploration based on generating and searching for all possible permutations of selected syntactic labels (S, V, O, p and Aux.), i.e., all possible word order patterns is presented. Finally, after applying the corpus-driven methodology to the York-Toronto-Helsinki Corpus of Old English (YCOE) and outlining some broad assumptions that are valid cross-linguistically, the word order patterns attested in YCOE are syntactically analyzed — of note is the in-depth analysis of embedded adverbial adjunct clauses with respect to CP-recursion. This study documents and presents analyses of an extensive list of word order patterns in OE and categorically verifies certain theories of OE syntax, and challenges others. To the best of our knowledge, the study presented in this article is the first corpus-driven investigation of the variation observed in OE. More generally, this study lays a foundation for future corpus-driven and corpus-based research on Old English syntax., Journal of Historical Syntax, Vol. 7 No. 3 (2023): Variation in Old English revisited: a corpus-driven approach

The question of where Proto-Tupí-Guaraní (PTG) was spoken has been a point of considerable debate. Both northeastern and southwestern Amazonian homelands having been proposed, with evidence from both archaeology and linguistic classification playing key roles in this debate. In this paper we demonstrate that the application of linguistic migration theory to a recent phylogenetic classification of the Tupí-Guaraní family lends strong support to a northeastern Amazonian homeland.

Lexical Semantic Change is the study of how the meaning of words evolves through time. Another related question is whether and how lexical relations over pairs of words, such as synonymy, change over time. There are currently two competing, apparently opposite hypotheses in the historical linguistic literature regarding how synonymous words evolve: the Law of Differentiation (LD) argues that synonyms tend to take on different meanings over time, whereas the Law of Parallel Change (LPC) claims that synonyms tend to undergo the same semantic change and therefore remain synonyms. So far, there has been little research using distributional models to assess to what extent these laws apply on historical corpora. In this work, we take a first step toward detecting whether LD or LPC operates for given word pairs. After recasting the problem into a more tractable task, we combine two linguistic resources to propose the first complete evaluation framework on this problem and provide empirical evidence in favor of a dominance of LD. We then propose various computational approaches to the problem using Distributional Semantic Models and grounded in recent literature on Lexical Semantic Change detection. Our best approaches achieve a balanced accuracy above 0.6 on our dataset. We discuss challenges still faced by these approaches, such as polysemy or the potential confusion between synonymy and hypernymy.

This article investigates the evolutionary and spatial dynamics of typological characters in 117 Indo-European languages. We partition types of change (i.e., gain or loss) for each variant according to whether they bring about a simplification in morphosyntactic patterns that must be learned, whether they are neutral (i.e., neither simplifying nor introducing complexity) or whether they introduce a more complex pattern. We find that changes which introduce complexity show significantly less areal signal (according to a metric we devise) than changes which simplify and neutral changes, but we find no significant differences between the latter two groups. This result is compatible with a scenario where certain types of parallel change are more likely to be mediated by advergence and contact between proximate speech communities, while other developments are due purely to drift and are largely independent of intercultural contact.

Lexical Semantic Change is the study of how the meaning of words evolves through time. Another related question is whether and how lexical relations over pairs of words, such as synonymy, change over time. There are currently two competing, apparently opposite hypotheses in the historical linguistic literature regarding how synonymous words evolve: the Law of Differentiation (LD) argues that synonyms tend to take on different meanings over time, whereas the Law of Parallel Change (LPC) claims that synonyms tend to undergo the same semantic change and therefore remain synonyms. So far, there has been little research using distributional models to assess to what extent these laws apply on historical corpora. In this work, we take a first step toward detecting whether LD or LPC operates for given word pairs. After recasting the problem into a more tractable task, we combine two linguistic resources to propose the first complete evaluation framework on this problem and provide empirical evidence in favor of a dominance of LD. We then propose various computational approaches to the problem using Distributional Semantic Models and grounded in recent literature on Lexical Semantic Change detection. Our best approaches achieve a balanced accuracy above 0.6 on our dataset. We discuss challenges still faced by these approaches, such as polysemy or the potential confusion between synonymy and hypernymy., Accepted at The 12th Joint Conference on Lexical and Computational Semantics (*SEM 2023)

The Birgitta-Notker-Korpus (BiNoKo) is a resource dedicated to comparative research on historical registers. These guidelines include information about the corpus design, annotation layers, meta data, and annotation principles. The corpus comprises two sources: The Old High German Book of Psalms by Notker III of Saint Gall and the Old Swedish Revelations of Birgitta of Sweden.

V prispevku sta primerjana dva rokopisa o Antikristu, in sicer rokopis Antichrsta Shiullenie ali Lebn Antechrista iz leta 1767, ki je najstarejši ohranjen rokopis o Antikristu v slovenščini, in rokopis Shiulenje, regierenga inu smert Antikrista iz leta 1790. Oba sta nastala na Koroškem in sta vsebinsko enaka, zaradi česar sta za primerjavo še posebej zanimiva. Obravnavani so predvsem narečni vplivi in vpliv takratne knjižne norme na področju glasoslovja. The paper compares two manuscripts on the Antichrist: Antichrsta Shiullenie ali Lebn Antechrista from 1767, the oldest known manuscript on the Antichrist in Slovene, and Shiulenje, regierenga inu smert Antikrista from 1790. They have similar content and both are from the Koroška region, which makes it interesting to compare them. The paper mainly focuses on dialect influences and influences of the written norm of the time in the field of phonology.

La vocal neutra catalana és la realització més vistent d’entre les que manifesten una de les isoglosses principals amb què distribuïm les varietats del català en dos blocs geolectals. La bibliografia ha situat l’origen de la nostra vocal neutra en posició tònica o, després, pretònica, i dins del marc de les evolucions de /E/. Contra això, en aquest article defenso que la vocal neutra catalana va néixer en posició posttònica i a partir de /a/. En suport d’aquestes idees, aporto dades de l’occità —recollides a l’Atlas linguistique de la France i que presento en mapes meus—, que faig valdre per al català assumint que la isoglossa catalana del tractament de /a/ àtona final sobrepassa el límit nord del nostre domini lingüístic i continua dins de l’occità. Finalment, reconstrueixo una cronologia que explicaria que, a partir de l’origen coincident que suposo, les dues llengües hagin acabat tenint resultats divergents per a /a/ àtona final. The Catalan schwa is the most prominent amongst the realisations that enact one of the main isoglosses by which we distribute Catalan varieties into two geolectal groups. The literature on the matter has placed the origin of Catalan schwa in stressed position and, later, in pretonic position, and within the frame of the evolution of /E/. On the contrary, in this article I plead that Catalan schwa was born in post-tonic position and from /a/. In support of these ideas, I present data from Occitan —gathered in the Atlas linguistique de la France and rendered in my own maps— that I consider valid for Catalan by assuming that the Catalan isogloss on the treatment of unstressed final /a/ goes beyond the northern limit of the Catalan sprachraum and continues within Occitan. Finally, I reconstruct a timeline by which it could be explained that, from the matching origin I hypothesise, the two languages have ended up with divergent results for unstressed final /a/.

Heritage speakers (HSs) are known to differ from monolingual speakers in various linguistic domains. The present study focuses on the syntactic properties of monolingual and heritage Russian. Using a corpus of semi-spontaneous spoken and written narratives produced by HSs of Russian residing in the US and Germany, we investigate HSs’ word order patterns and compare them to monolingual speakers of Russian from Saint Petersburg. Our results show that the majority language (ML) of HSs as well as the clause type contribute to observed differences in word order patterns between speaker groups. Specifically, HSs in Germany performed similarly to monolingual speakers of Russian while HSs in the US generally produced more SVO and less OVS orders than the speakers of the latter group. Furthermore, HSs in the US produced more SVO orders than both monolingual speakers and HSs in Germany in embedded clauses, but not in main clauses. The results of the study are discussed with the reference to the differences between main and embedded clauses as well as the differences between the MLs of the HSs., Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Projekt DEAL

This master's thesis examines formulaic language patterns in Middle High German legal texts ('charters'), using an interdisciplinary approach with diplomatic, linguistic, and computational perspectives. A charter corpus of over 7,000 documents from Monasterium.net is analyzed, and the degree of formulaicity is measured through lexical diversity indices, compression rates, and n-gram coverage, using the Reference Corpus for Middle High German as a comparison. Various techniques extract formulas, partly to determine adherence to specific charter segments, while skip probabilities and string similarity measures capture formulaic flexibility. Additionally, two fine-tuned large language models predict and quantify formula and charter slots. Results surprisingly show only an average degree of formulaicity in charters, with a mild decrease over the 14th century. The analysis of different formula generators reveals their strengths and weaknesses, emphasizing the need for their combination in research. While skip probabilities effectively quantify formulaic preferences, they have limitations in accounting for linguistic relations beyond a formula's environment. String similarity measures are hypothesized to address this issue, quantifying formula variance not limited to predetermined structures. In addition, sequence predictions exhibit promising performance in filling formula slots and text imputation, necessitating further research. Findings suggest the need for joining multiple techniques for a more comprehensive understanding of formulaic language patterns in Middle High German legal texts. As an outlook, the thesis highlights the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration in studying historical language and the potential of computational techniques in providing insights into formulaicity and formulaic flexibility., Contrary to the file listed in the official repository of the University of Graz, this version contains fully working (hyper-)links and references. Content-wise, both files are equivalent.

[Português] O Nordeste Asiático, como região, hospeda um número de línguas cujas relações com outras famílias linguísticas do globo continuam obscuras até hoje. Apesar dessa descrição ser frequentemente usada para se referir às ditas línguas Paleossiberianas, um conjunto heterogêneo de línguas isoladas e famílias linguísticas rasas do Extremo Leste Russo, poderíamos bem dizer o mesmo de seus vizinhos mais amplamente difundidos ao sul – a dizer, as famílias linguísticas coreânica e japônica (das quais o coreano e o japonês são seus membros mais famosos, respectivamente). Geralmente ligadas à família linguística altaica, tentativas frustradas de se reconstruir uma protolíngua convincente e resolver questões relacionadas às ramificações internas, somadas às várias dúvidas sobre as origens das duas primeiras línguas, levantam dúvidas quanto a essa conexão. As páginas a seguir apresentam um resumo multidisciplinar, coletando dados de áreas como a genética e a arqueologia, do que (não) sabemos até agora sobre a formação linguística da península coreana e do arquipélago japonês. [English] Northeast Asia, as a region, is home to a number of languages whose relationships to other language families of the world remain murky to this day. Although this description is often used to describe the so-called Paleosiberian languages, a motley assortment of language isolates and shallow language families from the Russian Far East, it could well be applied to their more widely spoken neighbours to the South – namely, the Koreanic and the Japonic language families (of which Korean and Japanese are their most famous members, respectively). Often linked to the Altaic language family, failed attempts to reconstruct a well-accepted protolanguage and resolve issues related to internal branching, compounded with the many doubts regarding the origins of the Koreanic and Japonic families, raise doubts regarding this connection. The following pages present a multidisciplinary summary, trawling for data in fields such as genetics and archaeology, of what we (do not) know so far about the linguistic formation of the Korean peninsula and the Japanese archipelago. [Español] El noreste de Asia, como región, alberga una serie de idiomas cuyas relaciones con otras familias lingüísticas en todo el mundo siguen sin estar claras hasta el día de hoy. Aunque esta descripción se usa a menudo para referirse a las llamadas lenguas paleosiberianas, una colección heterogénea de lenguas aisladas y familias de lenguas superficiales del Lejano Oriente ruso, bien podríamos decir lo mismo para sus vecinos más extendidos al sur: a saber, las familias lingüísticas coreana y japonesa (de las cuales el coreano y el japonés son sus miembros más famosos, respectivamente). Generalmente vinculado a la familia de lenguas altaicas, los intentos frustrados de reconstruir una protolengua convincente y resolver cuestiones relacionadas con las ramificaciones internas, sumados a las diversas dudas sobre los orígenes de las dos primeras lenguas, plantean dudas sobre esta conexión. Las siguientes páginas presentan un resumen multidisciplinario, recopilando datos de áreas como la genética y la arqueología, de lo que (no sabemos) hasta ahora sobre la formación lingüística de la península de Corea y el archipiélago japonés., Revista do CEAM, 8, 2022

Northeast Asia, as a region, is home to a number of languages whose relationships to other language families of the world remain murky to this day. Although this description is often used to describe the so-called Paleosiberian languages, a motley assortment of language isolates and shallow language families from the Russian Far East, it could well be applied to their more widely spoken neighbours to the South – namely, the Koreanic and the Japonic language families (of which Korean and Japanese are their most famous members, respectively). Often linked to the Altaic language family, failed attempts to reconstruct a well-accepted protolanguage and resolve issues related to internal branching, compounded with the many doubts regarding the origins of the Koreanic and Japonic families, raise doubts regarding this connection. The following pages present a multidisciplinary summary, trawling for data in fields such as genetics and archaeology, of what we (do not) know so far about the linguistic formation of the Korean peninsula and the Japanese archipelago., El noreste de Asia, como región, alberga una serie de idiomas cuyas relaciones con otras familias lingüísticas en todo el mundo siguen sin estar claras hasta el día de hoy. Aunque esta descripción se usa a menudo para referirse a las llamadas lenguas paleosiberianas, una colección heterogénea de lenguas aisladas y familias de lenguas superficiales del Lejano Oriente ruso, bien podríamos decir lo mismo para sus vecinos más extendidos al sur: a saber, las familias lingüísticas coreana y japonesa (de las cuales el coreano y el japonés son sus miembros más famosos, respectivamente). Generalmente vinculado a la familia de lenguas altaicas, los intentos frustrados de reconstruir una protolengua convincente y resolver cuestiones relacionadas con las ramificaciones internas, sumados a las diversas dudas sobre los orígenes de las dos primeras lenguas, plantean dudas sobre esta conexión. Las siguientes páginas presentan un resumen multidisciplinario, recopilando datos de áreas como la genética y la arqueología, de lo que (no sabemos) hasta ahora sobre la formación lingüística de la península de Corea y el archipiélago japonés., O Nordeste Asiático, como região, hospeda um número de línguas cujas relações com outras famílias linguísticas do globo continuam obscuras até hoje. Apesar dessa descrição ser frequentemente usada para se referir às ditas línguas Paleossiberianas, um conjunto heterogêneo de línguas isoladas e famílias linguísticas rasas do Extremo Leste Russo, poderíamos bem dizer o mesmo de seus vizinhos mais amplamente difundidos ao sul – a dizer, as famílias linguísticas coreânica e japônica (das quais o coreano e o japonês são seus membros mais famosos, respectivamente). Geralmente ligadas à família linguística altaica, tentativas frustradas de se reconstruir uma protolíngua convincente e resolver questões relacionadas às ramificações internas, somadas às várias dúvidas sobre as origens das duas primeiras línguas, levantam dúvidas quanto a essa conexão. As páginas a seguir apresentam um resumo multidisciplinar, coletando dados de áreas como a genética e a arqueologia, do que (não) sabemos até agora sobre a formação linguística da península coreana e do arquipélago japonês.

Kathryn Klingebiel, ‘Occitan Linguistic Bibliography for 2012’, Tenso, 29:173–208. See also YWMLS, 75:150–57. Aitor Carrera reports on ‘Activitats de la Catedra d’Estudis Occitans de la Universitat de Lleida’, ER, 36:437–38. Marie-Laure Savoye et al., *‘Sur les traces d’Edith Brayer: catalogue des manuscrits francais et occitans de la Bibliotheque Vaticane’, MEFR, 126.2, . The world of Occitan scholarship and literature has now lost Pierre Bec (1921–2014), memorialized by Francois Pic in and by David grosclaude, Anem! Occitans!, 149:4–5, . Further obituaries for Peter T. Ricketts (†7 May 2013) and Marti de Riquer (†17 September 2013) have appeared: for the former, by Walter Meliga in RLiR 78:303–6 and F. R. P. Akehurst in Tenso 29:231–44 (with substantial bibliography, 234–44); and for the latter, by Alberto Varvaro in MedRom, 37, 2013:432–35. Varvaro (1934–2014) was himself remembered in necrologies by Laura Minervini and giovanni Palumbo in RLiR, 78:607–17, and by Francisco Rico and Isabel de Riquer in El Pais (1 November 2014). Other losses noted in 2014: Moshe Lazar (†13 December 2012), remembered by Robert A. Taylor in Tenso, 29:225–30; James J. Wilhelm (†13 December 2012), with obituary by Janet A. Walker, Tenso, 29:219–24; and Marcelle D’Herde Heiliger (†1 March 2014). Yan Lespoux, ‘Un pilier meconnu de l’occitanisme: Pierre-Louis Berthaud (1899–1956)’, AIEO 10, 625–33, traces the crucial role played by this mentor of Robert Lafont in the Occitan movement between 1930–1960. Jean Thomas, ‘Fernand Barrue, entre gasconha e Lengadoc’, AIEO 10, 852–59, provides a portrait of a now-forgotten poet (1891–1956), author of three collections, who returned to using his native gascon in his late works—and whose poetry deserves a full edition. Id., ‘Paul Debar (1794–1853)’, Gardy Vol., 897–909, reviews the life and work of a poet who is cited 94 times in Mistral’s Tresor. Bernat Vernhieras, ‘Andrieu Lagarda, passaire de la lenga’, AIEO 10, 921–30, recaps the productive career and ‘obra considerabla’ of this militant Occitanist of the generation of 1945. R. Anthony Lodge, *‘Jacques-Louis Menetra and his experience of the langue d’oc’, pp. 210–17 of Norms and Usage in Language History, 1600–1900: A Sociolinguistic and Comparative Perspective, ed. gijsbert Rutten et al., Amsterdam, Benjamins, viii + 334 pp. Elena grinina and galina Romanova, ‘La imatge de l’occita a Russia’, AIEO 10, 954–57, present a brief overview, with specific attention to two works: Academia de Linguistica, La formacio de llengues romaniques literaries: el provencal/l’occita, 1991; and Tatiana Alisova and Camila Pluzhnikova, El provencal antic: La historia de l’Occitania medieval. La gramatica historica. Crestomatia, 2011.

This paper is a brief overview of the typological features of negation in the Sino-Tibetan (ST) languages (with two branches, Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman languages), utilizing the data of many previous descriptive works and data I gathered by myself. This paper discusses the features of phonology, word order, tense/aspect, morphology, syntax/semantics, and illocutionary acts. Phonologically, Sinitic languages usually have plosive and nasal onsets for negative morphemes, while Tibeto-Burman (TB) languages mostly have negative forms derived from Proto-Tibeto-Burman (PTB) *ma-. Most Sinitic and TB languages are of the preverbal negation type, whereas postverbal negation type can be found in Northeast India and Bangladesh, the double type (cooccurring preverbal and postverbal negatives) can be found in Nepal and in Karenic languages. Some Sinitic and TB languages employ different forms for tense/aspect distinctions that show suppletion or vowel alternation, whereas Burmese “tense” distinctions are neutralized in negation. Many TB negative morphemes are morphologically clitics or affixes. The negative markers in some ST languages are fused with the copula, auxiliary verbs, or aspectual markers. As for semantic features, some languages with negative-polarity items, such as Mandarin and Duhumbi, have a structural “double negative, ” which is construed as single negation. Many ST languages mostly have prohibitive forms derived from PTB *ta ⪤ *da, while some languages, such as Burmese, utilize concordance with a sentence-final marker to represent the prohibitive.

L’esperienza di traduzione di Viva voce di Michel Banniard, a quasi trent’anni di distanza dalla pubblicazione, suggerisce riflessioni sulla ricezione del saggio. Si aggiunge un bilancio critico del problema della transizione dal latino alle lingue romanze secondo alcuni studi pubblicati entro questo lasso di tempo, al fine di verificare l’utilità del libro nel dibattito tra filologi e linguisti, o tra latinisti e romanisti. The new translation of Michel Banniard’s Viva voce, almost thirty years after its publication, suggests some thoughts on its reception. The essay adds a critical assessment on the topic of the transition from Latin to the Romance varieties – according to some studies published within this time frame –, in order to verify the worth of the book in the debate between philologists and linguists, or between Latinists and Romanists.

This article examines Thomas Hardy's conflicting responses to late-Victorian debates about grammatical prescriptivism and linguistic purism. While Hardy claimed that “purism, whether in grammar or vocabulary, almost always means ignorance,” he also frequently expressed his interest in the (perhaps unrealizable) ideal of a “pure English” founded on fixed and unequivocal grammatical rules. Focusing on Tess of the d'Urbervilles, a novel subtitled “A Pure Woman,” I argue that this ambivalence informed the grammar of Hardy's prose style in his fiction. In this novel, Hardy employs the ambiguous modality of the English language, the imprecise grammatical distinction between the indicative statement of facts and the subjunctive elaboration of conceptions and hypotheses, both to sustain and to interrogate the binary of the real and the ideal that underpins his simultaneous critique and defense of the notion of “purity.” This use of modality highlights an analogy between Hardy's views on moral and linguistic purity: in each case, he rejects narrow estimations of purity, while nonetheless championing an ideal—of “pure English” and the “pure woman”—that transcends the limited perspectives of conventional purisms.

This dissertation investigates the grammaticalization of posture verbs in Dutch and German. Dutch posture verbs have been used as progressive markers since the Middle Dutch period. In the modern language, the verbs take a complement verb introduced by an infinitive marker te, whereas in Middle Dutch, they are linked with another verb by the coordinating conjunction ende, resulting in a structure comparable to verbal coordination. This Middle Dutch progressive construction with posture verbs has a parallel in Modern German, namely a pseudo-coordinate construction with posture verbs. The Modern German construction is thought to be in the early stages of grammaticalization, in the sense that it occasionally hints at temporal aspect.Through a quantitative investigation of data extracted from corpora, this study concludes that the two Dutch posture-verb constructions are independent of each other. Therefore, the historical development of the construction can be described as the replacement of the older pseudo-coordinate construction by the new construction, which is functionally superior. The present-day German construction, on the other hand, is generally biclausal and cannot be characterized as a grammaticalized progressive construction. The comparison of the Dutch pseudo-coordinate construction with the German coordinate construction provides insight into the continuum between coordination and pseudo-coordination.

This dissertation investigates the grammaticalization of posture verbs in Dutch and German. Dutch posture verbs have been used as progressive markers since the Middle Dutch period. In the modern language, the verbs take a complement verb introduced by an infinitive marker te, whereas in Middle Dutch, they are linked with another verb by the coordinating conjunction ende, resulting in a structure comparable to verbal coordination. This Middle Dutch progressive construction with posture verbs has a parallel in Modern German, namely a pseudo-coordinate construction with posture verbs. The Modern German construction is thought to be in the early stages of grammaticalization, in the sense that it occasionally hints at temporal aspect.Through a quantitative investigation of data extracted from corpora, this study concludes that the two Dutch posture-verb constructions are independent of each other. Therefore, the historical development of the construction can be described as the replacement of the older pseudo-coordinate construction by the new construction, which is functionally superior. The present-day German construction, on the other hand, is generally biclausal and cannot be characterized as a grammaticalized progressive construction. The comparison of the Dutch pseudo-coordinate construction with the German coordinate construction provides insight into the continuum between coordination and pseudo-coordination.

L’abandon des systèmes graphiques au profit de l’orthographe contemporaine dans l’écrasante majorité des éditions de textes du xviie siècle. a fait disparaître leur richesse graphématique. Cette dernière est logiquement restée en grande partie méconnue, et donc sous-exploitée, en dépit de son rendement interprétatif certain. En privilégiant une approche pratique, sur corpus, plutôt que théorique, et en s’appuyant sur une recatégorisation des différents systèmes concurrents à cette époque en scriptae françaises, nous nous proposons de poser les bases d’une étude scriptométrique de la langue classique, s’intéressant à l’analyse de documents singuliers, manuscrits comme imprimés. The use of contemporary spelling rather than old graphic systems in the vast majority of current editions of 17th century French texts has the unfortunate effect of masking their graphematic richness. Such valuable information has remained concealed and therefore under-exploited, despite the potential it holds in terms of analysis. By favouring a practical corpus-based approach, rather than a theoretical one, and by relying on a recategorisation of the various competing systems at that time in French scriptae, we propose the foundations of a scriptometric study of the classical language, focusing on the analysis of specific documents, both manuscripts and old prints.

Cet article est une étude approfondie du terme dramway, que l’on trouve dans le sud-ouest de la Grande-Bretagne et qui est surtout connu dans le Gloucestershire. Il n’apparaît ni dans l’Oxford English Dictionary ni dans les dictionnaires de dialectes nationaux et régionaux bien connus. Il présente un intérêt historique, théorique et sociologique. L’objectif ici est de répondre à deux questions linguistiques, l’une historique et l’autre à la fois théorique et socio-onomastique. D’une part, comment expliquer son origine ? D’autre part, s’agit-il d’un mot ordinaire (un nom commun), d’un nom propre ou d’autre chose (et dans quel but) ? L’article s’appuie sur des sources locales d’histoire industrielle et ferroviaire, archivées, imprimées et en ligne, ainsi que sur des écrits en linguistique et en onomastique pour éclairer, à travers une discussion approfondie du mot-exemple, certains aspects complexes du processus de son devenir-nom et de son devenir-mème dans un cadre bilingue et dans un contexte de déclin post-industriel et de gestion du patrimoine et du tourisme qui en découle. This is a comprehensive investigation of the term dramway, local to south-west Britain and best recorded in Gloucestershire. It does not appear in the Oxford English Dictionary or in well-known national and regional dialect dictionaries. It is of historical, theoretical and sociological interest. The aim here is to answer two linguistic questions, one historical and the other both theoretical and socio-onomastic. Firstly, how can its origin be explained? and secondly, is it an ordinary word (a common noun), a proper name or something else (and to what purpose)? The paper draws on local industrial and railway history sources, archival, printed and online, and on writings in linguistics and onomastics to illuminate, through extensive discussion of the example-word, some complex strands of the process of its becoming-a-name and becoming-a-meme in a bilingual setting and in a context of post-industrial decline and consequent heritage and tourism management.

A number of cyclical changes have already been noted in the historical evolution of some syntactic structures of Chinese (Peyraube 2017). The phenomenon of preposition stranding could be an additional example.Preposition stranding refers to a syntactic construction in which a preposition is left without a following object. This kind of construction is commonly found in English (where it usually occurs at the end of the sentence), but also in other Germanic languages or dialects, and also in some languages belonging to the Niger-Congo family, but it is almost non-existent in standard Mandarin.However, we can find stranded, hanging or dangling prepositions in contemporary various dialects, such as in the Zhangjiakou dialect (Hebei province). See, among others, the research works of Dong Xiufang (1998), Zong Shouyun (2019), Guo Rui (2009), and Zhang Yisheng (2009).It is also assumed that preposition stranding was quite common in Archaic Chinese up to the Early Medieval Chinese period. However, no systematic analysis has been done yet on these former stages of the Chinese language, and especially for Early Medieval and Late Medieval Chinese, when the Classical Chinese prepositions (comitative, instrumental, locative, ablative, allative, dative, etc.) yǐ and yú have become obsolete and have been replaced by other prepositions.This article tries to fill this gap and to show that there has been the following typological evolution from Archaic to Contemporary Chinese: [more preposition stranding] > [less preposition stranding] > [more preposition stranding]

(High) German is both a group of closely related West Germanic varieties and a standardized language derived from this group that comprises a wide range of dialects and colloquial varie-ties in addition to its standardized form. The two terms have related, and to an extent overlap-ping, but distinct meanings: German refers to a Standard Average European language spoken predominantly in Central Europe by some 96 million speakers and by minority speech commu-nities around the globe. High German has a double meaning: On the one hand, it is another term for Standard German. On the other hand, it refers to the High German linguistic group within West Germanic, the linguistic basis for the German language. As such, it is defined by the High German consonant shift, a sound change that affected Germanic obstruents and set it apart from its immediate neighbours within (West) Germanic, i.e. Low German and Low Franconian. The High German consonant shift around the 7th century, together with the onset of written trans-mission in the 8th century, marks the beginning of the history of (High) German. Traditional dialects perpetuate patterns of areal variation that arose in the wake of this sound change. Standard German developed out of High German written varieties, especially based on East Central German, through processes of levelling, koneization, metalinguistic reasoning, and cod-ification. During that process, the emergent supraregional norm superseded Low German in northern Germany and Upper German regional norms in the south, as well as influencing spo-ken registers, but (Standard) German remains a pluricentric and pluriareal language. Today, colloquial, regional varieties that combine features of Standard German and traditional dialects dominate oral language use, and in social media the written language, too, is developing new colloquial forms that build on standard orthography as well as on regional, informal forms of spoken language usage.

In this paper we present a new, lexicon-based phylogeny of 34 Southern Bantu languages, and combine it with previous insights from linguistics, archaeology, and genetics to study the history of Southern Bantu languages and their speakers. Our phylogeny shows all Southern Bantu languages to derive from a single, direct ancestor, which contrasts with archaeological evidence indicating separate migrations of Bantu speakers into southern Africa. This suggests that the Bantu languages spoken by the first migrants became extinct, and the ancestor of present-day Southern Bantu languages only emerged in southern Africa during the second millennium CE. We also map the distribution of previously established or suspected Khoisan-derived linguistic features in Southern Bantu languages onto this phylogeny. Evidence for intensive contact with speakers of Khoisan languages also comes from population genetics, which shows that Khoisan linguistic influence is mainly seen in languages spoken by populations displaying a higher degree of genetic admixture.

This paper discusses the impact of Romano Lazzeroni’s scholarship on Historical Linguistics and Indo-European studies altogether, by analyzing his groundbreakingworks and long-lasting legacy in relation to the state of the art and current research on four main questions: 1. morphosyntax/semantics interface; 2. linguistic andcultural reconstruction; 3. linguistic categorization; 4. language change. A portrait of Romano Lazzeroni as a brilliant and unique Teacher is also provided, as a modest token of gratitude to a giant of science and big-hearted Mentor.

This book is about reconstructing the grammar of Proto-Bantu, the ancestral language at the origin of the African linguistic family commonly known as Bantu. It is about how to retrieve the phonology, the morphology and the syntax the earliest Bantu speakers used to communicate with each other. In §1, I explain how this book came about. In §2, I offer a short presentation of its contents. In §3, I reflect critically on a number of methodological issues. Finally, in §4, I attempt to assess to what extent the new research presented in this volume requires a revision of Meeussen (1967).

The Global Digital Report 2019 found there are 51 million active internet social media users in Thailand, and it was ranked eighth in social media penetration, at 74% of the population (Leesa-Nguansuk 2019). Since the widespread use of the internet, Thai teenagers and young adults innovate countless colloquial vocabularies that have become viral in both online and real-life linguistic contexts. Thai society has demonstrated a high level of linguistic dynamic in terms of new words and meanings. Many of them originate from the LGBTQ+ community. It is interesting to examine these new words and meanings, as well as the factors contributing to the changes because they have a substantial effect on the development of modern Thai language. This study aims to examine the changes of Thai words แรง /rɛːŋ/ meaning ‘strength’ and แม่ /mɛː/ meaning ‘mother’ used colloquially under the frameworks of sound changes (Campbell 2013), semantic changes (Benjamin 2017), and causes of changes (Meillet 1905 & Ullmann 1963). The two words are chosen because they are among the top most common colloquial words that remain in use for a long period of time when compared with other less well-established colloquials or slangs that emerge and disappear more quickly. The results show that แรง /rɛːŋ/ ‘strength’ has a variety of colloquial usage depending on the contexts while แม่ /mɛː/ ‘mother’ has less variations. In terms of phonological changes, แรง /rɛːŋ/ has gone through the processes of vowel lengthening, shortening, labialization, detrillization, and tonal shift. แม่ /mɛː/ has variations of vowel lengthening and lowering. Regarding semantic changes, their meanings have been broadened, and แรง /rɛːŋ/ acquires a negative connotation (pejoration). The cause of changes is attributed to social causes as LGBTQ+ community invents the new usage of language to represent themselves as different and unique in the society, and members of the wider society adopt these innovations either as a sign of acceptance or simply because they are creative and sound fun to use. Thai culture also plays a crucial role because it guides the way Thai people interact with each other. In this case, different colloquial words and slangs especially those LGBTQ+-like make the interactions smooth and colorful., {"references":["Campbell, Lyle. 2013. Historical linguistics. Edinburgh University Press, 23-39.","Clackson, James. 2010. Colloquial language in linguistic studies. In E. Dickey & A. Chahoud (Eds.), Colloquial and Literary Latin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 7-11. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511763267.003.","Davis, Chloe O. 2021. The queens' English: The LGBTQIA+ dictionary of lingo and colloquial expressions. Random House.","Fortson, Benjamin W. 2017. An Approach to Semantic Change. In The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 648–666. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405166201.ch21.","Herman, Situmorang R.K. 2021. An analysis of slang language styles used in charlie's angels movie. Journal of English Educational Study (JEES), 4(1), 21-29.","Jakielski, Kathy J. & Gildersleeve-Neumann, Christina E. 2016. Phonetic Science for Clinical Practice. San Diego: Plural Publishing, Incorporated.","Kulick, Don. 2000. Gay and Lesbian Language. Annual Review of Anthropology, 29, 243–285. http://www.jstor.org/stable/223422.","Labov, William. 1966. The Social Stratification of English in New York City. Washington: Center for Applied Linguistics.","Leesa-Nguansuk, Suchit. 2019, February 19. Thailand tops global digital rankings. Bangkok Post. https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/1631402/thailand-tops-global-digital-rankings.","Rivers, Ian & Duncan Neil. 2013. Discourses of sexuality and gender considered. In Bullying. Routledge, 174-180.","Panfil, Vanessa R. 2020. \"Nobody Don't Really Know What That Mean\": Understandings of \"Queer\" among Urban LGBTQ Young People of Color, Journal of Homosexuality, 67:12, 1713-1735, DOI: 10.1080/00918369.2019.1613855.","Vecchio, Nicholas L. 2021. Borrowing and the historical LGBTQ lexicon: Profile of a pragmatically marked field. Pragmatics Cognition 28 (1):167-192. https://doi.org/10.1075/pc.00022.vec.","Ullmann, Stephen. 1963. The principles of semantics (2nd ed., 3rd impr. (with more bibliographical material).). Blackwell."]}

The languages spoken in East Africa before the introduction of pastoralism and agriculture are little known; isolates such as Hadza and Shabo (Ch'abu) are still extant, but these are surely remnants of an earlier rich diversity that must have obtained. This study looks at words that occur in these languages of East African hunter-gatherers and also in Peripheral East Cushitic (PEC) languages (Dullay and Yaaku), which would have been spoken by some of the earliest East African pastoralists. We contend that Cushitic languages spoken by foragers such as Dahalo and Yaaku retained some vocabulary items from earlier, non-Cushitic languages. PEC languages spoken by pastoralists also include some lexical items borrowed from forager languages, i.e. adstratal rather than substratal borrowing. Contact between foragers and pastoralists was not a one-time event; loans between West Rift and Hadza also occur, as has already been well-attested in the literature., Note: This talk has not gone through a process of peer review, and findings should therefore be treated as preliminary and subject to change. Acknowledgement and citation: Tosco, Mauro, and Bonny Sands. 2022. Early East African and Peripheral East Cushitic: Foragers and pastoralists in early East Africa.Talk given at the Rift Valley Network Webinar Series. 14/12/2022.

This thesis' main research goal is to provide an account of the English posture verb sit, from a synchronic a diachronic perspective. My proposed account of sit comprises various components, including a characterisation of the different possible meanings of sit and a comparison with stand and lie. The two relevant meanings are a literal one and non-literal one (The girl is sitting on the chair vs. The wine bottle is sitting on the chair; in the former the subject is described to be in a sitting position, while in the latter the subject is not in a sitting position). I analyse each meaning/use separately, noting which semantic patterns occur with one type only and those which occur with both. I argue that the non-literal use is diachronically connected to the literal one, and I motivate this claim based on the shared components identified in the thesis and on data from corpus studies reported in the thesis. A consequence of acknowledging a divide between the literal and non-literal uses---a perspective not usually taken in theoretical linguistics---is that I am able to account for important semantic details which might be otherwise overlooked. The cognitive and typological literature includes account of posture verbs cross-linguistically, but in the theoretical literature these verbs have not received much attention. In this thesis, I review existing proposals and highlight the uncertainties surrounding the posture verbs. In order to fillthese gaps in the literature and to better understand the phenomena, I analyse data from synchronic and diachronic corpus studies, and incorporate these insights into my account of sit El principal objetivo de investigación de esta tesis es dar cuenta del verbo de postura inglés sit (`sentarse¿), desde una perspectiva sincrónica y diacrónica. La descripción que propongo de sit comprende varios componentes, incluida una caracterización de los diferentes significados posibles de sit y una comparación con stand (`estar de pie¿) y lie (`estar echado¿). La literatura cognitiva y tipológica incluye una descripción de los verbos de postura de forma interlingüística, pero en la literatura teórica estos verbos no han recibido mucha atención. En esta tesis, reviso las propuestas existentes y destaco las preguntas sin responder que rodean a los verbos de postura. Para llenar estos vacíos en la literatura científica y comprender mejor los fenómenos, analizo datos de estudios de corpus sincrónicos y diacrónicos, e incorporo estos conocimientos en mi explicación de sit. Los dos significados relevantes son uno literal y uno no literal (The girl is sitting on the chair `La niña está sentada en la silla' vs. The wine bottle is sitting on the chair `(lit.) La botella de vino está sentada en la silla¿; en la primera frase, se describe el sujeto en posición de estar sentado, mientras que en la segunda frase el sujeto no está sentado). Analizo cada significado/uso por separado, notando qué patrones semánticos ocurren con un solo tipo y cuáles ocurren con ambos. Argumento que el uso no literal está conectado diacrónicamente con el literal, y motivo esta afirmación a partir de los componentes compartidos identificados en la tesis y en los datos de los estudios de corpus tratados en la tesis. Una consecuencia de reconocer una división entre los usos literales y no literales (una perspectiva que no suele adoptarse en la lingüística teórica) es que se consigue dar cuenta de importantes detalles semánticos que de otro modo podrían pasarse por alto.

In ancient Greek, past tenses of verbs starting with a consonant are prefixed with the vowel epsilon, but some verbs in Homer show an eta instead. These forms were linked to Vedic instances of long augments by part of the relevant literature. Other scholars preferred to explain the Greek instances as inner developments, while others denied any philological validity for the long augment as an actual morpheme, and rather explained its presence in some Homeric verbs as the product of analogical processes. My thesis focusses on specific Homeric forms within the heterogeneous set of evidence offered by ancient Greek. I take these long-augmented verbs to be artificial creations of the Homeric language. This line of interpretation is supported not only by considerations of historical phonology and morphology, but also through an innovative formula-based method. Its aim is to describe, through an analysis of the Homeric traditional language, the possible reasons and dynamics for the creation in the Kunstsprache of artificial long-augmented forms. More specifically, it might be possible to explain them as part of analogical modifications of pre-existent formulaic patterns, so as to provide an accurate description of how (and why) their artificial structure was used as a metrical alternative to their counterparts in the spoken language. The focus of my thesis is on ἠείδη ‘she/he knew’ (and ἠείδης ‘you knew’), ἤϊκτο ‘she/he resembled’, ἀπηύρα ‘she/he took away’, and the trisyllabic forms of the imperfect of εἶμι, i.e. ἤϊα ‘I went’, ‘ἤϊε ‘she/he went’, ἤϊσαν/ἤϊον ‘they went’. A detailed analysis of historical morphology shows that none of them can be assumed to be the result of linguistic processes in the ordinary language. This is also confirmed by their attestations limited to Homeric diction or later poetry imitating it. Furthermore, I show through the formula-based method how most of these long-augmented forms are part of analogical modifications derived from formulaic patterns, which contain forms of the same paradigm but without long augment (i.e. ᾔδεε ‘she/he knew’, ἐϊκυῖα/ἔϊκτο ‘resembling’/‘she/he resembled’, ἴσαν ‘they went’). This suggests that long-augmented forms are used primarily as metrically functional alternatives, which is a feature typical of artificial creations in Homer. Since the results of the method confirm the artificial nature of these forms, they cannot be compared with the Vedic data, nor can their long augment be deemed a genuine morpheme of ancient Greek. It is rather the product of analogical processes within the Homeric Kunstsprache. In particular, I provide a possible narrative for the origin and analogical use of a Homeric long augment in the pluperfect of οἶδα and imperfect of εἶμι, while explaining the initial long vowels of ἠειδ- and ἤϊκτο as analogical temporal augments used by the Homeric poets for metrical purposes. As for ἀπηύρᾱ, this morphologically controversial form is best explained as another analogical use of temporal augmentation, applied by the Ionian bards to original *ἀπεύρᾱ despite its metrical irrelevance. My method shows how forms like ἀπηύρᾱ, which had become extraneous to the Ionian bards, could nonetheless undergo analogical reshaping through the influence of structural connections among formulaic patterns.

In this paper, we will try to show how formal linguistics applied to the study of diachrony can be a fundamental asset for research (and consequently also for teaching at a university level) in the field of French language and literature. We will treat successively the analysis of the support verbs (§2), the realization verbs (§3), the intensity collocations (§4) and the pragmatically restricted clichés (§5). In each section, we will present and discuss numerous examples in medieval French accompanied by their published translations into contemporary French.

This essay will show, by the example of FWB-online (the online version of Frühneuhochdeutsches Wörterbuch), some possibilities to enhance the added value of traditional printed historical dictionaries published online by providing their data with deep structured semantic mark-up. This semantic mark-up can basically be used as a foundation for elaborated search and in a further advanced step also for visualizing specific aspects of the dictionary data, thus allowing for new perspectives on it. It will be shown, how these search methods and especially this kind of visualization of dictionary data can enable advanced approaches on both old and new scientific questions.

The impact of the lexicons that were often used in the past will be eroded due to the environmental conditions that surround them. This study has examined the critical condition in Balinese lexicon extinction. There are some Balinese language vocabularies that are almost extinct by the current generation due to cultural hegomonization. The occurrence of capitalist hegemony so it touches a substantial matter in the form of language. This research can inspire language observers and environmentalists as well as the authorities to revitalize the language that has become extinct. The method used in this study is qualitative descriptively by using questioner to collect the data. After analyzing this study, it can be found that some lexicon even extinct since environmental influences. It can erode the existence of the use of some lexicons in society. A new fact found in this study is that the development or change of the Balinese lexicon that occurs is comparative negative historical linguistics which is defined as a genetic change in language and loss of its function and meaning due to the extinction of the ecosystem and its relationship with the environment. The extinction of language due to the environment can be fixed with several efforts that can be made by the community. These efforts are language documenting reviving the oral tradition, stimulating the younger generation to be proud to use Balinese, Input the lexicons in the curriculum content, increase strong commitment from the community to continue using lexicons in their daily communication.