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Since December 2020, Argentina has begun a mass vaccination program. The first vaccine available in our country was Sputnik V, which has been approved for use in 71 countries with a total population of 4 billion people.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a public health concern due to its zoonotic transmission to human, being pigs a highly recognized reservoir. We previously demonstrated HEV genotype 3 infections in pig herds from the highest commercial active region from Argentina. Here, we present a case of acute symptomatic hepatitis E in an elderly man with occupational exposure to pigs who referred regular consumption of pork and sausages. HEV infection in this patient was demonstrated by serological methods, as well as by HEV RNA detection in serum and stool samples using the HEV/MS2 duplex RT-qPCR, formerly optimized in our laboratory. We further detected HEV RNA in pig faeces from the patient´s farm. To confirm the potential role of swine in the transmission, we performed a phylogenetic analysis of all HEV RNA derived from both, the patient and the pig samples. A 303 nt region within the HEV 5 'ORF2 was amplified by nested RT-PCR and subsequently sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the strains isolated from the farmer and from his pigs presented a nucleotide identity of 100%. These results support the zoonotic transmission of circulating HEV strains and confirm this epidemiological association for the first time in Argentina.

INTRODUCCIÓN: En 2019, surgió un nuevo coronavirus que causó una pandemia mundial. Durante 2020, se desarrollaron vacunas con aceptable seguridad y eficacia para disminuir complicaciones y muertes. El presente trabajo se propuso investigar la relación entre la vacunación y el contagio entre convivientes. MÉTODOS: Se analizaron datos del Registro Federal de Vacunación Nominalizado y los casos confirmados en provincia de Santa Fe registrados en el Sistema Integrado de Información Sanitaria Argentina desde 1 de enero hasta 30 de junio de 2021 en personas de 18 a 65 años. Se constituyeron 5291 pares de un caso índice y un caso secundario, cuyos domicilios coincidían y cuyas fechas de inicio de síntomas se hallaban en un rango de 2 a 14 días. Se seleccionaron los pares en los que una persona estaba vacunada y la otra no, con un total de 494 pares. RESULTADOS: El promedio de edad de los casos índice fue de 40,8 años y el de los secundarios fue de 40,5 años. Se hallaron 234 personas vacunadas entre los casos índice y 386 entre los secundarios. De los 494 pares con una persona vacunada y una no vacunada, el caso índice fue la persona vacunada en 179 pares, y en 315 pares el índice fue la persona no vacunada. DISCUSIÓN: El análisis sugiere que, en los contagios intradomiciliarios, donde se involucran personas vacunadas y no vacunadas, es más frecuente que sea la persona no vacunada quien constituya el caso índice. Esto señala la importancia de vacunar a los convivientes de las personas con factores de riesgo.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is currently considered as a global health concern due to the recognition of its zoonotic transmission to humans, mainly from swine, and its association with the development of severe cases of hepatitis in human risk populations. The lack of updated data on HEV state of infection in swineherds of Argentina, and the necessity of robust technologies for its detection in complex biological samples, positions HEV as an emerging issue in public health. Here, we have optimized a RT-qPCR with internal control for a more precise and accurate HEV RNA detection in swine stool samples. We implemented this optimized molecular tool to analyse the current epidemiological scenario of HEV infection in swine from the core region of commercial activity of Argentina. A total of 135 stool samples were collected from 16 different farms and tested for HEV presence, resulting in 11 positive cases (8.1%). Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that all of them correspond to HEV genotype 3 and that different subtypes circulate in the region. Moreover, two of the detected strains presented a high nucleotide similarity with a previously identified isolate from human sewage discharges, suggesting the zoonotic transmission of HEV to humans. Collectively, this work provides a better understanding of HEV epidemiology in Argentina while contributes to the improvement of HEV detection technologies.

Zika Virus (ZIKV) is an RNA virus that belongs to the Flavivirus (FV) genus. In the last years, several unique characteristics of ZIKV among FV have been revealed, as the multiple routes of transmission and its ability to reach different human tissues, including the central nervous system. Thus, one of the most intriguing features of ZIKV biology is its ability to cross diverse complex biological barriers. The main aim of this study is to contribute to the understanding of the still unclear mechanisms behind this viral activity. We investigated an African strain and two South American ZIKV isolates belonging to the Asian lineage, in order to characterize possible differences regarding their ability to disturb intercellular junctions. The Asian isolates correspond to an imported (Venezuelan) and an autochthonous (Argentinian) ZIKV strain for which there is still no data available. We focused on occludin and DLG1 expression as markers of tight and adherent junctions, respectively. For this, we applied a quantitative immunofluorescence assay that can ascertain alterations in the cell junction proteins expression in the infected cells. Our findings indicated that the different ZIKV strains were able to reduce the levels of both polarity proteins without altering their overall cell distribution. Moreover, the grade of this effect was strain-dependent, being the DLG1 reduction higher for the African and Asian Venezuelan isolates and, on the contrary, occludin down-regulation was more noticeable for the Argentinian strain. Interestingly, among both junction proteins the viral infection caused a relative larger reduction in DLG1 expression for all viruses, suggesting DLG1 may be of particular relevance for ZIKV infections. Taken together, this study contributes to the knowledge of the biological mechanisms involved in ZIKV cytopathogenesis, with a special focus on regional isolates.

Background Persistent infection with high-risk Human Papillomavirus (HPVs) is associated with the development of cervical cancer. The transforming capacity of these viruses relies on the cooperative action of the E6 and E7 viral oncoproteins. Among the oncogenic activities of E6, the interaction and interference with cell polarity PDZ proteins have been well established. One of the most characterized PDZ targets of HPV E6 is human Disc large 1 (DLG1), a scaffolding protein involved in the control of cell polarity and proliferation. Interestingly, in cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions, alterations in DLG1 expression were observed in association to tumour progression. Moreover, the expression of both HPV E6 and E7 proteins may be responsible for the changes in DLG1 abundance and cell localization observed in the HPV-associated lesions. Methods Due to the relevance of DLG1 deregulation in tumour development, we have performed an in-depth investigation of the expression of DLG1 in the presence of the HPV oncoproteins in epithelial cultured cells. The effects of HPV E6 and E7 proteins on DLG1 abundance and subcellular localization were assessed by western blot and confocal fluorescence microscopy, respectively. Results We demonstrated that the relative abundance of HPV-18 E6 and DLG1 is a key factor that contributes to defining the expression abundance of both proteins. We also show here that a high expression level of DLG1 may negatively affect HPV-18 E6 nuclear expression. Moreover, the co-expression of HPV-18 E6 and E7 produces a striking effect on DLG1 subcellular localization and a co-distribution in the cytoplasmic region. Interestingly, HPV-18 E7 is also able to increase DLG1 levels, likely by rescuing it from the E6-mediated proteasomal degradation. Conclusions In general, the data suggest that HPV-18 E6 and E7 may have opposing activities in regards to the regulation of DLG1 levels and may cooperatively contribute to its subcellular redistribution in the HPV context. These findings constitute a step forward in understanding the differential expression of DLG1 during tumour progression in an HPV-associated model.

Human T cell leukemia virus (HTLV)-1 Tax (Tax) protein is very important in viral replication and cell transformation. Tax localizes in the nucleus and cytoplasm in association with organelles. Some activities of Tax depend on interactions with PDZ (PSD-95/Discs Large/Z0-1) domain–containing proteins such as Discs large protein 1 (DLG1) which is involved in cell polarity and proliferation. The DLG1 interaction results in a cytoplasmic co-localization pattern resembling vesicular aggregates, the nature of which is still unknown. To further explore the role of PDZ proteins in HTLV-1 cell transformation, we deeply investigated the Tax-DLG1 association. By fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), we detected, for the first time, the direct binding of Tax to DLG1 within the cell. We showed that the interaction specifically affects the cellular distribution of not only DLG1, but also Tax. After studying different cell structures, we demonstrated that the aggregates distribute into the Golgi apparatus in spatial association with the microtubule-organizing center (MTOC). This study contributes to understand the biological significance of Tax-PDZ interactions. Fil: Marziali, Federico Emanuel. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Bugnon Valdano, Marina Paula. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Avalos, Clarisse Brunet. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Moriena, Lucía. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Cavatorta, Ana Laura. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Gardiol, Daniela Nora. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina

Human Discs large tumour suppressor (DLG1) participates in regulating cell polarity and proliferation, suggesting an important connection between epithelial organization and cellular growth control. However, it was demonstrated that DLG1 could acquire oncogenic attributes in some specific contexts. In this work, we evaluated the expression of DLG1 and its contribution to the progress of cervical lesions in order to investigate a potential role of this polarity protein in human oncogenic processes. We analyzed cervical biopsies from women with low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL) diagnosis (n = 30), for DLG1 expression by immunohistochemistry. These results were correlated with the clinical monitoring of the patients during a 24-month follow-up period. Our data indicate that while all LSIL patients with a DLG1 staining pattern similar to normal tissues are significantly more likely to regress (n = 23, Pattern I), all LSIL biopsy specimens showing a diffuse and intense DLG1 staining likely progress to high-grade lesions (n = 4, Pattern II). Finally, all persistent LSIL analyzed showed an undetermined DLG1 staining, with a diffuse distribution without a strong intensity (n = 3, Pattern III). We found a significant association between the expression pattern of DLG1 and the evolution of the lesion (p

High-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is the principal risk factor for the development of cervical cancer. The HPV E6 oncoprotein has the ability to target and interfere with several PSD-95/DLG/ZO-1 (PDZ) domain-containing proteins that are involved in the control of cell polarity. This function can be significant for E6 oncogenic activity because a deficiency in cell polarisation is a marker of tumour progression. The establishment and control of polarity in epithelial cells depend on the correct asymmetrical distribution of proteins and lipids at the cell borders and on specialised cell junctions. In this report, we have investigated the effects of HPV E6 protein on the polarity machinery, with a focus on the PDZ partitioning defective 3 (Par3) protein, which is a key component of tight junctions (TJ) and the polarity network. We demonstrate that E6 is able to bind and induce the mislocalisation of Par3 protein in a PDZ-dependent manner without significant reduction in Par3 protein levels. In addition, the high-risk HPV-18 E6 protein promotes a delay in TJ formation when analysed by calcium switch assays. Taken together, the data presented in this study contribute to our understanding of the molecular mechanism by which HPVs induce the loss of cell polarity, with potential implications for the development and progression of HPV-associated tumours. Fil: Facciuto, Florencia Natalia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Bugnon Valdano, Marina Paula. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Marziali, Federico Emanuel. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Massimi, Paola. International Centre For Genetic Engineering And Biotechnology; Italia Fil: Banks, Lawrence. International Centre For Genetic Engineering And Biotechnology; Italia Fil: Cavatorta, Ana Laura. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Gardiol, Daniela Nora. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina

The general features of the PDZ domain structure and functions have been extensively studied during the last decade. PDZ domains are generally present in proteins that are involved in multiple interactions to assemble functional protein complexes that control key cellular processes. One of the best characterized functions of PDZ domain-containing proteins is control of epithelial cell polarity and cell-cell contacts. In the present review, we summarize the current knowledge on regulation of expression of certain PDZ polarity proteins localized at the intercellular junctions. In addition, we provide a critical overview of recent findings regarding the role of these proteins during development of human diseases. Complete understanding of these issues is valuable for the design of novel therapeutic intervention for common pathologies, such as cancer.

Human Disc large (DLG1) has been demonstrated to be involved in the control of cell polarity and maintenance of tissue architecture, and is frequently lost in human tumours. However, the mechanisms controlling DLG1 expression are poorly understood. To further examine the regulation of DLG1 expression, we analysed the 5' ends of DLG1 transcripts by rapid amplification of cDNA ends polymerase chain reaction. We identified an alternative splicing event in the 5' region of DLG1 mRNA that generates transcripts with two different 5' untranslated regions (5'-UTRs). We show by reporter assays that the DLG1 5'-UTR containing an alternatively spliced exon interferes with the translation of a downstream open reading frame (ORF). However, no significant differences in mRNA stability among the DLG1 5'-UTR variants were observed. Sequence analysis of the additional exon present in the larger DLG1 5'-UTR showed the presence of an upstream short ORF which is lost in the short version of the 5'-UTR DLG1. By mutagenesis and luciferase assays, we analysed the contribution of this upstream short ORF in reducing translation efficiency, and showed that its disruption can revert, to some extent, the negative regulation of large 5'-UTR. Using computational modelling we also show that the large DLG1 5'-UTR isoform forms a more stable structure than the short version, and this may contribute to its ability to repress translation. This represents the first analysis of the 5' region of the DLG1 transcripts and shows that differential expression of alternatively spliced 5'-UTRs with different translational properties could result in changes in DLG1 abundance.

Loss of cell polarity is a fundamental process in cell transformation. Among polarity proteins, we focused on human disc large (DLG1), which is localized mainly at adherens junctions and contributes to the control of cell proliferation. We previously demonstrated that its expression is altered in HPV-associated cervical neoplastic lesions, but the mechanisms beyond this remain unknown. In this study, we analysed the contribution of HPV proteins to the changes in DLG1 expression in the squamous epithelium. We observed tissue and intracellular misdistribution of DLG1 when high-risk HPV-18 E7 or E6/E7 proteins were expressed in organotypic raft cultures. The viral oncoproteins induce the loss of DLG1 from the cell borders and an increase in the level of DLG1 protein, reflecting the pattern observed in cervical lesions. These findings were corroborated in cultures bearing the entire HPV-18 genome. Interestingly, changes in tissue distribution and abundance of DLG1 were also detected in organotypic cultures expressing the low-risk HPV-11 E7 or E6/E7 proteins, suggesting a conserved function among different HPV types. However, for low-risk HPVs, the subcellular localization of DLG1 at cell-to-cell contacts was predominantly maintained. This report offers new evidence, we believe, of the involvement of HPV proteins in DLG1 expression pattern and our data support previous observations regarding DLG1 expression in cervical lesions. Fil: Bugnon Valdano, Marina Paula. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Cavatorta, Ana Laura. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Morale, M. G.. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil Fil: Marziali, Federico Emanuel. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Lino, V. de Souza. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil Fil: Steenbergen, R. D. M.. VU University Medical Center; Países Bajos Fil: Boccardo, E.. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil Fil: Gardiol, Daniela Nora. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina

Human discs large (DLG1) has been demonstrated to be involved in cell polarity and maintenance of tissue architecture. However, the mechanisms controlling DLG1 expression are not fully understood. This is relevant as DLG1 is lost during the later stages of malignant progression. We initiated a series of studies to analyse the mechanisms regulating DLG1 expression. We have previously reported the identification of an alternative splicing event in the 5 ′ untranslated region (5 ′ -UTR) of DLG1 mRNA that generates transcripts with two different 5 ′ -UTR (short and large 5 ′ -UTR variants). In this study, we further examined the impact of the DLG1 transcription and the role of the differential expression of the alternative 5 ′ -UTRs on DLG1 protein levels. We analysed these mechanisms during cell processes like differentiation, cell cycle progression and cell-cell contact formation, where the importance of DLG1 activities was previously established. The data presented in this report suggest that the transcriptional regulation of DLG1 strongly contributes to DLG1 abundance and that differential expression of alternative 5 ′ -UTRs with different translational properties, also cooperates, depending on the cell type and cell situation. This study provides new evidence for understanding the transcriptional regulation of DLG1 and the changes in DLG1 expression during different biological processes. Fil: Marziali, Federico Emanuel. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Cavatorta, Ana Laura. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Bugnon Valdano, Marina Paula. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Facciuto, Florencia Natalia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina Fil: Gardiol, Daniela Nora. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario; Argentina

A number of studies have demonstrated the involvement of human Disc large (DLG1) in the control of both cell polarity and maintenance of tissue architecture. However, the mechanisms controlling DLG1 transcription are not fully understood. This is relevant since DLG1 is lost in many tumours during the later stages of malignant progression. Therefore, we performed the cloning and functional analysis of a genomic 5' flanking region of the DLG1 open reading frame with promoter activity. We analyzed the activity of a series of 5' deletion constructs of the DLG1 promoter and determined the minimal essential sequences that are required for promoter activity as well as cis-elements that regulate transcription. We found, within the DLG1 promoter sequences, consensus-binding sites for the Snail family of transcription factors that repress the expression of epithelial markers and are up-regulated in a variety of tumours. Snail transcription factors repress the transcriptional activity of the DLG1 promoter and, ectopically expressed Snail proteins bind to the native DLG1 promoter. These data suggest a role for Snail transcription factors in the control of DLG1 expression and provide a basis for understanding the transcriptional regulation of DLG1.

High-risk HPVs play a causal role in the development of cervical cancer, and their E6 oncoproteins target h-Dlg for ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis. The h-Dlg oncosuppressor is associated with cell-cell interactions, and deregulation of these structures leads to defective cell adhesion, loss of cell polarity and unregulated proliferation. We evaluated the contribution of this E6 activity in the progression to malignancy in HPV infections by analyzing h-Dlg expression in HPV-associated lesions. We analyzed h-Dlg in cervical, laryngeal, vulvar, colon and kidney histologic samples by Dlg immunohistochemistry. HPV association was ascertained by a PCR-colorimetric method. Although Dlg was certainly expressed in intraepithelial cervical, vulvar and laryngeal HPV-associated lesions, its cellular and tissue distribution patterns were altered compared to normal tissue. However, marked reduction in Dlg levels was observed in HPV-positive invasive cervical carcinomas. To elucidate whether the loss of Dlg was significant for carcinogenesis in general, we investigated Dlg expression in tumors not associated with HPV. In colon and kidney carcinomas, Dlg was expressed, albeit with a different pattern of distribution with respect to the normal tissue. The loss of Dlg may be considered a late-stage marker in cervical carcinogenesis, but alterations in its expression and localization take place during the different dysplastic stages. Dlg downregulation and/or alterations in its localization may contribute to transformation and may explain some of the characteristics of the malignant cells, such as loss of polarity and high migration ability.