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application/pdf, An immunoaffinity column-HPLC method was used to investigate the contamination of aflatoxins (AFs) in black and white pepper marketed in Indonesia and Vietnam. AFs were detected in 1 sample (5%) of the black pepper marketed in Indonesia. AFs were detected in 5 samples (25%) of the Vietnamese marketed product. None of the black pepper samples exceeded the EU regulatory limit. AFs were detected in 9 samples (45%) of white pepper sold in Indonesia, and 1 sample exceeded the AFB1 limit (5 μg/kg) set by EU. AFs were detected in 14 samples (70%) of white pepper sold in Vietnam, none of which exceeded the EU regulatory limit. Comparing the AFs contamination of black and white pepper, the frequency and concentration of contamination was higher in white pepper than black pepper. Only one white pepper exceeded the EU regulatory limit, and the risk of AFs in black and white pepper marketed in both countries was not so high., インドネシアとベトナムで市販されていた黒と白胡椒のアフラトキシン類（AFs）の汚染調査をイムノアフィニテーカラム-HPLC法で行った。インドネシア市販の黒胡椒は1検体（5%）からAFsが検出されたが、ベトナム市販品では、5検体（25%）からAFsが検出された。黒胡椒でEUの規制値を超える検体はなかった。インドネシア市販の白胡椒は9検体（45%）からAFsが検出され、1検体がEUのAFB1の規制値（5 μg/kg）を超えていた。ベトナム市販白胡椒では、14検体（70%）からAFsが検出されたが、EUの規制値を超える検体はなかった。また、黒胡椒と白胡椒のAFs汚染の比較した場合、汚染頻度と濃度共に白胡椒の方が高かった。しかしながら、EUの規制値を超える検体は1検体のみで、両国で市販されていた黒胡椒と白胡椒のAFsのリスクはあまり高くないと考えられた。

application/pdf, Aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxins (OTs) contamination of chili peppers sold in Vietnam and Japan was investigated using an immunoaffinity column-HPLC method. AFs were detected in 80% (20/25) of chili peppers sold in Vietnam, of which 8 samples (32%) exceeded AFB1 standard value (5 μg/kg) set by EU, and 5 samples (20%) exceeded the standard value (10 μg/kg) for total AFs set by EU and Japan. The mean of AFB1 was 11.24 μg/kg and total AFs was 11.81 μg/kg in positive samples. 88% (15/17) of chili peppers sold in the market were badly contaminated with AFs, the mean of AFB1 was 12.12 μg/kg and the mean of total AFs was 12.79 μg/kg. These were more than five times higher than the chili peppers sold in supermarkets. AFs were not detected in chili peppers sold in Japan., OTA was detected in all of the chili peppers sold in Vietnam. The mean was 11.41 μg/kg. Of these the chili peppers, 5 (20%) exceeded the limit of OTA (15 μg/kg) set by EU, and 2 (8%) exceeded the limit of OTA (30 μg/kg) set by Vietnam. An average of 6.27 μg/kg of OTA was detected in all samples purchased at supermarkets. On the other hand, an average of 13.30 μg/kg OTA was detected in all samples purchased from the market, which was more than twice as high. OTA was detected on average in 100% (10/10) of chili peppers sold in Japan. The average of OTA was 0.67 μg/kg, less than 1/10 that of Vietnamese chili pepper., From the above results, it was found that chili peppers sold in Vietnam were contaminated with relatively high concentrations of AFs and OTA. In particular, the contamination level of chili peppers sold in the market was high., ベトナムと日本で市販されていた唐辛子のアフラトキシン（AFs）とオクラトキシン（OTs）の汚染調査をイムノアフィニテーカラム-HPLC法で行った。ベトナム市販唐辛子の80%（20/25）からAFs類が検出され、そのうち、8検体（32%）がEUのAFB1の基準値（5 μg/kg）を超えており、5検体（20%）EUや日本の総AFsの基準値（10 μg/kg）を超えていた.陽性検体のAFB1の平均値は11.24 μg/kgで、総AFsの平均値は11.81 μg/kgであった。特に、ベトナムの市場で販売されていた唐辛子の88%（15/17）がAFsに汚染されており、陽性検体のAFB1の平均値は12.12 μg/kgと総AFsの平均値は12.79 μg/kgであり、スーパーマーケットで販売されていた唐辛子の陽性検体のAFB1の平均値は2.35 μg/kgと総AFsの平均値は2.47μg/kgを5倍以上、上回っていた。また、日本市販の唐辛子からはAFは検出されなかった。ベトナム市販唐辛子の96%（24/25）からOTBが検出され、全てからOTAが検出された。これらの汚染検体中5検体（20%）がOTAのEU基準値15 μg/kgを超え、2検体（8%）がOTAのベトナム基準値30 μg/kgを超えでいた。陽性検体のOTBの平均値は3.11 μg/㎏、OTAの平均値は11.41 μg/㎏であった。また、スーパーマーケットで購入した検体の全てから平均6.27 μg/kgのOTAが検出された。一方、市場で購入した検体の全てから平均が13.30 μg/kg OTAが検出され、2倍以上高濃度であった。日本市販の唐辛子からの90%（9/10）から平均OTBが検出され、全てからOTAが検出された。陽性検体のOTBの平均値は0.04 μg/㎏、OTAの平均値は0.67 μg/㎏であり、ベトナムの唐辛子の1/10以下であった。以上の結果から、ベトナム市販の唐辛子は、比較的高頻度かつ高濃度のAFsとOTsに汚染されていた。特に、市場で販売されていた唐辛子の汚染レベルは高かった。

This paper describes the mycotoxins produced by fungi from the genera Fusarium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Claviceps and other types of molds, their characteristics and importance. Mycotoxins are secondary fungi metabolites that serve as a defense mechanism in stressful conditions. Several hundred mycotoxins have been identified so far, and the most significant in terms of danger to human health and animals are aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, patulin, fumonisin, zearalenone and nivalenol/deoxynivalenol produced by toxigenic fungi from the genera Penicillium, Aspergillus, Claviceps, Stachybotris and Fusarium. Moisture and temperature are two factors that have a crucial influence on the development of the fungus and the synthesis of toxins. It is estimated that approximately 25% of agricultural crops are infected with fungi. Consequently, foods can also be contaminated with mycotoxins. By treating the stored grain with various chemicals, and in recent years, using environmentally friendly fungicides, the synthesis of mycotoxins is being prevented and the development of mycotoxicogenic fungi is being controlled. The mycotoxicosis can occur directly through the consumption of infected food, inhalation and skin contact, or indirectly through animals that eat contaminated feed. Mycotoxins have a pathological effect primarily on liver. Some mycotoxins also interfere with cellular protein synthesis, causing hypersensitivity and extreme immunodeficiency. Despite mycotoxins being resilient and remaining stable while undergoing chemical and thermal food processing, methods such as applying good hygiene and production practices from field to table can reduce their occurence., U ovom radu opisani su mikotoksini koji stvaraju gljivice iz rodova Fusarium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Claviceps i drugih vrsta plijesni; njihove karakteristike i važnost. Mikotoksini su sekundarni metaboliti gljivica koji služe kao obrambeni mehanizam u stresnim uvjetima. Do sada je identificirano više stotina mikotoksina, a najznačajniji s obzirom na opasnost za ljudsko zdravlje i životinje su aflatoksini, ohratoksin A, patulin, fumonizin, zearalenon i nivalenol/deoksinivalenol koje stvaraju toksikogene gljivice iz rodova Penicillium, Aspergillus, Claviceps, Stachybotris i Fusarium. Vlaga i temperatura dva su faktora koji imaju krucijalni utjecaj na razvoj gljive i sintezu toksina. Procjenjuje se da je oko 25% poljoprivrednih usjeva zaraženo gljivama. Posljedično tome namirnice mogu također biti kontaminirane mikotoksinima. Tretiranjem uskladištenog zrna raznim kemikalijama, a zadnjih godina primjenom ekološki prihvatljivih fungicida, onemogućuje se sinteza mikotoksina i kontrolira se razvoj mikotoksikogenih gljiva. Do pojave mikotoksikoza može doći direktno konzumacijom zaražene hrane, inhalacijom i kontaktom putem kože ili indirektno konzumacijom mesa, mliječnih proizvoda i jaja životinja koje se hrane kontaminiranom krmom. Mikotoksini patološki prije svega djeluju na jetru. Neki mikotoksini također interferiraju sa sintezom staničnih bjelančevina uzrokujući preosjetljivost i ekstremnu imunodeficijenciju. Budući da je karakteristika mikotoksina da su kemijski i termički stabilni i da podnose procese prerade hrane, ipak postoje metode pomoću kojih se njihova pojavnost može smanjiti, pogotovo primjenom dobre higijenske i proizvodne prakse od polja do stola.

Bu araştırma geç hasadın (GH), Giresun kalite Tombul fındığın bazı fiziksel, kalite ve renk özellikleri ile aflatoksin düzeyine etkisini belirlemek için yapılmıştır. Bu amaçla normal hasat zamanı (NH) referans alınarak dört farklı zamanda hasat yapılmıştır (hasat öncesi-HÖ, erken hasat-EH, NH, GH). Örneklerin meyve ve iç boyutları, meyve ve iç ağırlığı, randıman, kabuk kalınlığı, göbek boşluğu, sağlam iç oranı, kusurlu iç oranı, beyazlama oranı ve diğer bazı fiziksel ve endüstriyel özellikleri belirlenmiştir. Natürel ve kavrulmuş fındıkların L, a, b, kroma (C) ve hue (h) değerleri belirlenmiş ve renk skalası oluşturulmuştur. Ayrıca örneklerin aflatoksin düzeyleri tespit edilmiştir. Çalışma sonuçlarına göre GH örneklerin göbek boşluğu daha düşük, zar atma oranı daha yüksek bulunmuştur. Geç hasatla beraber fındık içlerinin parlaklığı ve doygunluğu kabuğundan farklı davranış göstererek azalırken her ikisinin de kırmızılığı artmıştır. Hiçbir dönemde aflatoksin oluşumu tespit edilmemiştir. Sonuç olarak fındıkların geç hasat edilmesinin biyometrik ve renk özellikleri üzerinde olumsuz bir etkisinin olmadığı, endüstriyel değerini arttırdığı görülmüştür. Geç hasatta aflatoksin oluşumunun gözlenmemesi nedeniyle toksin probleminin hasattan sonraki aşamalardan kaynaklandığı düşünülebilir., This research was carried out to determine the effect of late harvest time (LH) on some physical, quality and color characteristics and aflatoxin level of Giresun quality Tombul hazelnut. For this purpose, harvesting was done at four different times (pre-harvest time -PH, early harvest time -EH, normal harvest time -NH, LH) with reference to the NH. Nut and kernel dimensions, nut and kernel weight, kernel percentage, shell thickness, kernel cavity, good kernel ratio, defective kernel ratio, blanching ratio and some other physical and industrial properties of the samples were determined. L, a, b, chroma (C) and hue (h) values of natural and roasted hazelnuts were determined and a color scale was created. In addition, aflatoxin level of the samples was determined. According to the results of the study, the kernel cavity of the GH samples was found to be lower and the blanching ability rate was higher. With the late harvest, the brightness and saturation of the hazelnut kernels decreased by showing a different behavior from the shell, while the redness of both increased. No formation of aflatoxin has been detected in any period. As a result, it was seen that the late harvest of hazelnuts did not have a negative effect on the biometric and color characteristics and increases the industrial value. Since aflatoxin formation is not observed in late harvest, it can be thought that the toxin problem arises from the stages after harvest.

Gestational and lactational transmission of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) can elicit several toxic effects emphasizing the severity of aflatoxicosis. The present study aimed to investigate the genotoxic effects of prenatal and postnatal exposure to AFB1 on the livers of exposed offspring. With this aim, 50 mu g/kg/body weight per day AFB1 was administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) to pregnant and lactating dam rats. Pups grouped as newborns (GD21/PND0) exposed in utero and infants exposed through breast milk (PND21) were compared with body weight measurements. Liver tissues were weighed after removal and subjected to histochemical (HC), immunohistochemical (IHC) and biochemical analyzes. The body weight and liver weight of exposed newborns were significantly lower than control (P, Scientific and Technological Research Council of Tuerkiye with the TUBITAK 2211 scholarship program, This study is a master's thesis and was supported by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Tuerkiye with the TUBITAK 2211 scholarship program. We would like to express our gratitude to Ege University for its great support to the study.

This study was conducted to evaluate aflatoxin (AFB1) adsorption capacity of a carbonaceous biomass (Bio-C) in vitro and the efficacy of a Bio-C in mitigating the effects of a 0.5 mg/kg dose of aflatoxins (AF) in vivo. In vitro AFB1 affinity of Bio-C were determined by using different AFB1 concentration containing solutions, and these concentrations were measured by a UV-visible spectrophotometry. In in vivo test, a total of 192 Cobb-500 male broilers were obtained on the day of hatch and randomly allocated to one of 32 treatments pens (6 birds/pen). Birds were fed a broiler starter mash diet containing either 0 or 0.5 mg/kg AF, with or without 0.4% of Bio-C, resulting in 4 treatments arranged as a 2x2 full-factorial. Pen weights and feed consumed were recorded weekly, and mortality was recorded daily. On day 21, three birds from each pen were killed by cervical dislocation and the liver, kidney, and spleen were removed and weighed for relative organ weight assessment. Data were analyzed as a 2x2 full-factorial for AF level and Bio-C using the GLM procedures of SPSS. Our data indicates that Bio-C adsorption capacity was ranged from 29% to 70%, with an average of 44%. In vivo results showed that the performance of birds receiving 0.5 mg/kg AF were not significantly different compared to the control group at any point during the 21-day trial. No main effects were seen on the performance parameters by the inclusion of Bio-C in the diet. There was also no AF/Bio-C interaction. The relative weights of the liver, kidney, and spleen were not significantly different whether birds were fed 0.5 mg/kg AF or 0.4% Bio-C. These data suggest that supplementation of Bio-C has no effect on broiler performance when provided in diets either free of AF or containing up to 0.5 mg/kg.

The application of enzyme-link immunosorbent assay for aflatoxin contamination of 20 different powdered milk samples consumed within Anambra State, Nigeria was carried out primarily to ascertain their health implications. The samples were subjected to Ridascreen ELISA competitive enzyme immunoassay for the quantitative determination of aflatoxins in the milk. All the reagents required for the enzyme immunoassay including statndards were contained in the test kit used. Preparatory samples stages were grinding, extraction, filtration/centrifugation followed by acid mixture digestion process with tablet of selenium catalyst. The proximate analyses of the samples were done via AOAC standard procedures. The results revealed relatively low moisture contents with a range of 1.64 to 4.72%, with sample T recording highest value of 4.72% . The highest value of ash content was observed for sample D ( 6.57%) while sample R had lowest value of 0.85%. The lowest amount of crude fat was recorded by sample F (2.60%) as against high value of 21.33% for sample B. Crude protein showed least amount in samples A (20.19%) with the highest amount found in sample H (23.67%). The quantification of aflatoxins in the 20 powdered milk samples using ELIZA method revealed relatively low concentration of aflatoxins in the samples and the trend observed had a range of 0.36ppm (sample B) to 0.81ppm (sample F). The average aflatoxin concentration was estimated to be 0.61ppm. Samples C, E and F had mean level of aflatoxin recorded as 0.71ppm while the mean amount implicated for samples A, B, G and K was 0.51ppm. Conclusively, the results of the proximate analysis of the milk samples revealed appreciable occurrence of crude protein and relatively low amount of aflatoxins. The level of aflatoxins in all the samples was found to occur below National Regulatory threshold value of 4ppm, hence all the samples analyzed can be adjudged to be safe for consumption with little precautionary measures for hygiene and preservation.

Background: Aflatoxin (AF), a metabolite of Aspergillus flavus, is injurious to vital body organs. The bacterial defense against such mycotoxins has attracted significant attention. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are known to ameliorate AF toxicity. Methods: Thirty adult male rats were divided into six groups (five each) to perform the experiments. The control (Co) group was fed a basal diet and water. Each of the following periods lasted 21 days: the milk (MK) group orally received milk (500 µL); LAB suspension (500 µL) containing 107 cfu/mL was orally provided to the LAB group; AF (0.5 mg/kg) was orally given to the AF group; and a combination of AF and LAB was administered to the AF + LAB group. The AF/LAB group was initially given AF for 21 days, followed by LAB for the same period. Finally, the rats were dissected to retrieve blood and tissue samples for hematological, biochemical, and histological studies. Results: The results revealed a significant decrease in RBCs, lymphocytes, total proteins, eosinophil count, albumin, and uric acid, whereas the levels of WBCs, monocytes, neutrophils, creatinine, urea, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, and creatinine kinase significantly increased in the AF group in comparison to the control group. The histological examination of the AF group revealed necrosis and apoptosis of the kidney’s glomeruli and renal tubules, nuclei vacuolization and apoptosis of hepatocytes, congestion of the liver’s dilated portal vein, lymphoid depletion in the white pulp, localized hemorrhages, hemosiderin pigment deposition in the spleen, and vacuolization of seminiferous tubules with a complete loss of testis spermatogenic cells. Meanwhile, protective and therapeutic LAB administration in AF-treated rats improved the hematological, biochemical, and histological changes. Conclusions: The study revealed LAB-based amelioration to AFB1-induced disruptions of the kidney, liver, spleen, and testis by inhibiting tissue damage. The therapeutic effects of LAB were comparatively more pronounced than the protective effects.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and Zearalenone (ZEN) are among the most common and important mycotoxin contaminants in agricultural products, with AFB1 comprising a liver carcinogen and ZEN responsible for reproductive dysfunctions. As mycotoxins are heat-stable, their removal is carried out mainly by anti-mycotoxin additives. This includes the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In this context, this study aimed to evaluate the in vitro detoxification of AFB1 and ZEN at pH 3 and 6 by three S. cerevisiae strains isolated from bovine forage, coded LL74, LL08, and LL83, determining the adsorption and biotransformation capacities of each strain. The yeast were freeze-dried and added, in triplicate, at 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mg mL−1 to a static gastrointestinal model. Final mycotoxin concentrations were determined by HPLC-FL. The evaluated strains exhibited high mycotoxin adsorption rates (20–55%), especially the LL08 strain, although low biotransformation, both equivalent to a commercial strain. The results indicate that pH does not interfere in AFB1 detoxification, while the use of 2.0 mg mL−1 of the LL83 S. cerevisiae strain led to higher ZEN adsorption at pH 3. The investigated strains indicate the possibility for use in in vivo conditions and high potential for commercial applications, with LL08 as the most promising strain.

Aspergillus flavus is a major aflatoxin B1, posing significant health concerns to humans, crops, and producer fungi. Due to the undesirable consequences of the usage of synthetic fungicides, biological control using yeasts has gained more attention. In this study, eight isolates of epiphytic yeasts belonging to Moesziomyces sp., Meyerozyma sp. and Metschnikowia sp., which have been identified as antagonists, were isolated from different plants, including grapes, blueberries, hawthorns, hoşkıran, beans and grape leaf. While volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by Moesziomyces bullatus DN-FY, Metschnikowia aff. pulcherrima DN-MP and Metschnikowia aff. pulcherrima 32-AMM reduced in vitro A. flavus mycelial growth and sporulation, only VOCs produced by Metschnikowia aff. fructicola 1-UDM were found to be effective at reducing in vitro AFB1 production. All yeasts reduced the mycelial growth of A. flavus by 76–91%, while AFB1 production reduced to 1.26–10.15 ng/g and the control plates’ growth was 1773 ng/g. The most effective yeast, Metschnikowia aff. Pulcherrima DN-HS, reduced Aspergillus flavus growth and aflatoxin B1 production on hazelnuts. The AFB1 content on hazelnuts reduced to 333.01 ng/g from 536.74 ng/g. To our knowledge, this is the first report of yeasts isolated from plants being tested as potential biological control agents to reduce AFB1 production on hazelnuts.

Aflatoxins are among the main carcinogens threatening food and feed safety while imposing major detection challenges to the agrifood industry. Today, aflatoxins are typically detected using destructive and sample-based chemical analysis that are not optimally suited to sense their local presence in the food chain. Therefore, we pursued the development of a non-destructive optical sensing technique based on fluorescence spectroscopy. We present a novel compact fluorescence sensing unit, comprising both ultraviolet excitation and fluorescence detection in a single handheld device. First, the sensing unit was benchmarked against a validated research-grade fluorescence setup and demonstrated high sensitivity by spectrally separating contaminated maize powder samples with aflatoxin concentrations of 6.6 µg/kg and 11.6 µg/kg. Next, we successfully classified a batch of naturally contaminated maize kernels within three subsamples showing a total aflatoxin concentration of 0 µg/kg, 0.6 µg/kg and 1647.8 µg/kg. Consequently, our novel sensing methodology presents good sensitivity and high potential for integration along the food chain, paving the way toward improved food safety.

Aflatoxins are immunosuppressive and carcinogenic secondary metabolites, produced by the filamentous ascomycete Aspergillus flavus, that are hazardous to animal and human health. In this study, we show that multiplexed host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) of Aspergillus flavus genes essential for fungal sporulation and aflatoxin production (nsdC, veA, aflR, and aflM) confers enhanced resistance to Aspergillus infection and aflatoxin contamination in groundnut (

Cool season grasses are the main component of pasture-based agriculture in temperate regions of the world. In warmer environments, warm season and tropical grasses (typically C4 plants) are commonly used. The continual invention of fresh feeds and forages will be essential in helping ruminant agriculture begin to adjust to the rising temperatures of the globe. Research projects in this area are urgently needed because it typically takes fodder breeding programmes 15 years to generate a new, performance-tested variety that can be included on recommended lists. Having insufficient feed to meet animal demands (feed gap) is a significant element that can limit productivity. When forage yield is low, forage conservation enables a greater supply of higher-quality feed. Greater productivity and improved bale quality will be in demand as commercial hay markets expand and livestock farms grow in size. The feel, texture, smell, and appearance of a hay crop are frequently used by forage buyers and sellers to evaluate and estimate its value. The producer or manager can develop a well-balanced diet, use forages more efficiently in feeding programmes, and more accurately appraise and market available forage lots by evaluating the forages' nutritional value.

Cool season grasses are the main component of pasture-based agriculture in temperate regions of the world. In warmer environments, warm season and tropical grasses (typically C4 plants) are commonly used. The continual invention of fresh feeds and forages will be essential in helping ruminant agriculture begin to adjust to the rising temperatures of the globe. Research projects in this area are urgently needed because it typically takes fodder breeding programmes 15 years to generate a new, performance-tested variety that can be included on recommended lists. Having insufficient feed to meet animal demands (feed gap) is a significant element that can limit productivity. When forage yield is low, forage conservation enables a greater supply of higher-quality feed. Greater productivity and improved bale quality will be in demand as commercial hay markets expand and livestock farms grow in size. The feel, texture, smell, and appearance of a hay crop are frequently used by forage buyers and sellers to evaluate and estimate its value. The producer or manager can develop a well-balanced diet, use forages more efficiently in feeding programmes, and more accurately appraise and market available forage lots by evaluating the forages' nutritional value.

A comprehensive study of bacterial and biotoxin contaminants of ready-to-eat (RTE) foods in Nigeria is yet to be reported. Hence, this study applied 16S rRNA gene sequencing and a dilute-and-shoot LC-MS/MS method to profile bacteria and biotoxins, respectively, in 199 RTE food samples comprising eko (n = 30), bread (n = 30), shawarma (n = 35), aadun (n = 35), biscuits (n = 34), and kokoro (n = 35). A total of 631 bacterial isolates, clustered into seven operational taxonomic units, namely Acinetobacter, Bacillus, Klebsiella, Proteus and Kosakonia, Kurthia, and Yokenella, that are reported for the first time were recovered from the foods. One hundred and eleven metabolites comprising mycotoxins and other fungal metabolites, phytoestrogenic phenols, phytotoxins, and bacterial metabolites were detected in the foods. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, and ochratoxins contaminated only the artisanal foods (aadun, eko, and kokoro), while deoxynivalenol and zearalenone were found in industrially-processed foods (biscuit, bread, and shawarma), and citrinin was present in all foods except eko. Mean aflatoxin (39.0 µg/kg) in artisanal foods exceeded the 10 µg/kg regulatory limit adopted in Nigeria by threefold. Routine surveillance, especially at the informal markets; food hygiene and safety education to food processors and handlers; and sourcing of high-quality raw materials are proposed to enhance RTE food quality and safeguard consumer health.

Toxigenic members of Aspergillus flavus contaminate cereal grains, resulting in contamination by aflatoxin, a food safety hazard that causes hepatocellular carcinoma. This study identified probiotic strains as aflatoxin detoxifiers and investigated the changes to the grain amino acid concentrations during fermentation with probiotics in the presence of either A. flavus La 3228 (an aflatoxigenic strain) or A. flavus La 3279 (an atoxigenic strain). Generally, higher concentrations (p < 0.05) of amino acids were detected in the presence of toxigenic A. flavus La 3228 compared to the atoxigenic A. flavus La 3279. Compared to the control, 13/17 amino acids had elevated (p < 0.05) concentrations in the presence of the toxigenic A. flavus compared to the control, whereas in systems with the atoxigenic A. flavus 13/17 amino acids had similar (p > 0.05) concentrations to the control. There were interspecies and intraspecies differences in specific amino acid elevations or reductions among selected LAB and yeasts, respectively. Aflatoxins B1 and B2 were detoxified by Limosilactobacillus fermentum W310 (86% and 75%, respectively), Lactiplantibacillus plantarum M26 (62% and 63%, respectively), Candida tropicalis MY115 (60% and 77%, respectively), and Candida tropicalis YY25, (60% and 31%, respectively). Probiotics were useful detoxifiers; however, the extent of decontamination was species- and strain-dependent. Higher deviations in amino acid concentrations in the presence of toxigenic La 3228 compared to atoxigenic La 3279 suggests that the detoxifiers did not act by decreasing the metabolic activity of the toxigenic strain.

Nearly 700,000 tonnes of peanuts are consumed annually in Europe. In the last 5 years, peanuts imported from China exceeded legal European Union (EU) aflatoxin limits more than 180 times. To prevent and mitigate aflatoxin contamination, the stages of the peanut chain most vulnerable to contamination must be assessed to determine how to interrupt the movement of contaminated produce. This paper discusses effective approaches for early identification and proactive mitigation of aflatoxins in peanuts to reduce a contaminant that is an impediment to trade. We consider (i) the results of the EU Commission's Directorate-General (DG) for Health and Food Safety review, (ii) the Code of Practice for the prevention and reduction of aflatoxins in peanuts issued by Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization, (iii) the results from previous EU-China efforts, and (iv) the latest state-of-the-art technology in pre- and postharvest methods as essential elements of a sustainable program for integrated disease and aflatoxin management. These include preharvest use of biocontrol, biofertilizers, improved tillage, forecasting, and risk monitoring based on analysis of big data obtained by remote sensing. At the postharvest level, we consider rapid testing methods along the supply chain, Decision Support Systems for effective silo management, and effective risk monitoring during drying, storage, and transport. Available guidance and current recommendations are provided for successful practical implementation. Food safety standards also influence stakeholder and consumer trust and confidence, so we also consider the results of multiactor stakeholder group discussions.

Chillies and chilli-based products are important spices on a global basis. The production, processing, transport and storage phases of chillies are prone to infection by Aspergillus Section Flavi and contamination with aflatoxins (AFs), especially aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) for which legislative limits exist in many countries. We have examined the effect of the interacting abiotic factors of water availability (water activity, aw; 0.995-0.850 aw) and temperature (15-37 °C) on (a) lag phases prior to growth, (b) growth, (c) AFB1 production and (d) contour maps of optimum and boundary conditions for colonisation and toxin production by three Aspergillus flavus strains on a 10% chilli-based medium. Additional studies with whole red chillies + A. flavus conidial inoculum on AFB1 contamination during storage for 10-20 days at 30 °C were also carried out. In vitro, the lag phases before growth were delayed by lower temperatures (15, 20 °C) and aw levels (0.928-0.901 aw). There was no statistical difference in growth between the three strains. Optimal growth was at 37 °C and 0.982 aw with no growth at 0.85 aw. Optimal temperature × aw conditions for AFB1 production were at 30 °C and 0.982 aw with no statistical difference in production between strains. No AFB1 was produced at 15-20 °C at 0.901 and 0.928 aw levels, respectively. In situ studies with A. flavus inoculated whole red chillies at 0.90 and 0.95 aw found that this species became the major component of the total fungal populations at 30 °C after 10-20 days storage. AFB1 contamination was above the European legislative limits (5 μg/kg) for spices at 0.90 aw after 20 days storage and at 0.95 aw after 10 and 20 days. This suggests that storage conditions of ≥0.90 aw, especially at ≥25-30 °C represents a significant risk of contamination with AFB1 at levels where rejection might occur, even after only 10-20 days storage.

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) contamination in milk and milk products may pose a major public health concern. The present cross-sectional study was aimed to estimate the prevalence of AFM1 in bovine milk across all districts of Punjab, India and to identify the associated animal and farm level risk factors. A total of 402 milk samples (266 cow milk and 136 buffalo milk) were analysed using commercial ELISA and representative samples were confirmed using HPLC-FLD. The results revealed that 56.2 and 13.4% of the milk samples exceeded the maximum levels of the European Union, i.e. 0.05 μg/l and Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), i.e. 0.5 μg/l for AFM1 in milk, respectively. On analysis of species variation, buffalo milk (prevalence: 56.6%; mean concentration: 0.42±0.9 μg/l) was found to have higher AFM1 levels than cow milk (prevalence: 56.0%; mean concentration: 0.19±0.3 μg/l), with statistically significant difference between mean concentrations (P1 prevalence (P=0.91). Furthermore, milk from commercial dairy farms (prevalence: 64.7%; mean concentration: 0.34±0.65 μg/l) was found to be more contaminated than from household dairy establishments (prevalence: 47.8%; mean concentration: 0.19±0.65 μg/l). The risk factors ‘above average milk yield/day’ (odds ratio (OR): 2.4) and ‘poor animal hygiene’ (OR: 1.9) were identified at animal level, and ‘intensive dairy farming’ (OR: 3.1) and ‘animal feed without aflatoxin binder’ (OR: 4.7) as farm level risk factors for AFM1 excretion above maximum levels of European Union in milk. Among cow breeds, the milk from ‘non-descript’ breed (OR: 11.5) was found to be most contaminated with AFM1 and the least from Jersey breed (OR: 1.0). The present study highlighted the presence of AFM1 in milk samples; therefore, regular monitoring of AFM1 in milk is required so that high risk regions and associated risk factors can be addressed appropriately.

The need for a healthy market in the rapid and accurate screening of a variety of pathogenic agents and toxins in the environment and food has led to an increase in the development of new biosensors, which have ideal characteristics, such as high sensitivity and specificity with rapid detection and simple preparation of the sample. Among the food contaminants, mycotoxins have been identified as a major challenge for the food industry, and rapid and accurate detection has attracted the attention of food inspection and monitoring organisations. In this study, a nanomolecular detection method is described using aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-specific aptamers attached to streptavidin-coated magnetic nanoparticles. A prominent feature of the AFB1-specific aptamers is a guanine-rich (G-rich) sequence with a G-quadruplex structure after capturing AFB1 molecules and mimicking peroxidase activity. The enzymatic reaction evaluated in the presence of chromogenic substrate and measurement is done by a smartphone-specific application for colorimetric measurement. The results indicated that the assay could measure AFB1 in rice, flour, seed, maize, and pistachio. In addition, the application of hybrid nanomaterial technology resulting from the binding of biotin-labelled aptamers to the surface of streptavidin-coated magnetic nanoparticles minimises preparation and treatment of samples, improves results, and consequently reduces false negative and positive responses in the detection field. This study may eventually lead to the design and development of a fast, sensitive, specific, and on-site AFB1-based nanomolecular colorimetric detection system via a smartphone-based application that can be readily accessible to all applicants, from professionals to manufacturers of foodstuffs.

Aflatoxin is a secondary metabolite produced by Aspergillus fungi and presents a major food safety concern globally. Among the available methods for prevention and control of aflatoxin, the application of antifungal bacteria has gained favorability in recent years. An endophytic bacterium MS455, isolated from soybean, exhibited broad-spectrum antifungal activity against economically important pathogens, including Aspergillus flavus. MS455 was identified as a strain of Burkholderia based on genomic analysis. Random and site-specific mutations were employed in discovery of the genes that share high homology to the ocf gene cluster of Burkholderia contaminans strain MS14, which is responsible for production of the antifungal compound occidiofungin. RNA-seq analysis demonstrated ORF1, a homolog to the ambR1 LuxR-type regulatory gene, regulates occidiofungin biosynthesis in MS455. Additionally, a total of 284 differentially expressed genes, including 138 up-regulated, and 146 down-regulated genes, suggesting that, in addition to its role in occidiofungin production, ORF1 is involved in expression of multiple genes, especially those involved in ornibactin biosynthesis. Plate bioassays showed the growth of A. flavus was significantly inhibited by the wild-type strain MS455 as compared with the ORF1 mutant. Similarly, corn kernel assays showed that growth of A. flavus and aflatoxin production were reduced significantly by MS455 as compared with buffer control and the ORF1 mutant. Collectively, the results demonstrated that production of occidiofungin is essential for antifungal activity of the endophytic bacterium MS455. This research has provided insights to understanding antifungal mechanisms of MS455 and development of biological approaches to prevent aflatoxin contamination in plant production.

Grain contamination by mycotoxins can cause significantly negative health and economic impact in areas where poor agricultural practices and food insecurity is prevalent. This study was conducted to investigate the current postharvest practices and aflatoxin contamination awareness level amongst maize producers in Jimma Zone, Ethiopia. Semi-structured questionnaires were used for quantitative and qualitative data collection from 90 randomly selected maize producers in two districts through a cross-sectional study design. The study revealed poor postharvest practices due to lack of proper infrastructure. Maize is harvested after maturation with the use of traditional sun drying. Plastic sheets are commonly used to protect harvested maize from rain during field drying. The majority of the respondents reported the use of traditional storage structures (81.1%) with great potential for possible mould proliferation and aflatoxin production. Maize producers of up to 62.2% were ignorant about aflatoxins and up to 26.7% reported the possible usage of aflatoxin contaminated maize in human food preparation and animal feed production. Up to 53.3% of the respondents were ignorant of aflatoxin risks in human health and stability during food processing hence the usage of mouldy maize for tella brewing. Further investigations on aflatoxin levels in maize-based food and beverages, and human exposure studies are needed. Moreover, there is a need to enhance the maize producers’ knowledge on good agricultural practices and mycotoxicosis through awareness programmes.

Aflatoxin contamination of almond kernels, caused by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, is a severe concern for growers because of its high toxicity. In California, the global leader of almond production, aflatoxin can be managed by applying the biological control strain AF36 of A. flavus and selecting resistant cultivars. Here, we classified the almond genotypes by K-Means cluster analysis into three groups (susceptible [S], moderately susceptible [MS], or resistant [R]) based on aflatoxin content of inoculated kernels. The protective effects of the shell and seedcoat in preventing aflatoxin contamination were also examined. The presence of intact shells reduced aflatoxin contamination >100-fold. The seedcoat provided a layer of protection but not complete protection. In kernel inoculation assays, none of the studied almond genotypes showed a total resistance to the pathogen. However, nine traditional cultivars and four advanced selections were classified as R. Because these advanced selections contained germplasm derived from peach, we compared the kernel resistance of three peach cultivars to that shown by kernels of an R (Sonora) and an S (Carmel) almond cultivar and five pistachio cultivars. Overall, peach kernels were significantly more resistant to the pathogen than almond kernels, which were more resistant than pistachio kernels. Finally, we studied the combined effect of the cultivar resistance and the biocontrol strain AF36 in limiting aflatoxin contamination. For this, we coinoculated almond kernels of R Sonora and S Carmel with AF36 72 h before or 48 h after inoculating with an aflatoxin-producing strain of A. flavus. The percentage of aflatoxin reduction by AF36 strain was greater in kernels of Carmel (98%) than in those of Sonora (83%). Cultivar resistance also affected the kernel colonization by the biological control strain. AF36 strain limited aflatoxin contamination in almond kernels even when applied 48 h after the aflatoxin-producing strain. Our results show that biocontrol combined with the use of cultivars with resistance to aflatoxin contamination can result in a more robust protection strategy than the use of either practice in isolation.

This investigation was aimed to evaluate the effects of Silybum marianum seed, Thymus vulgaris, and Rosmarinus officinalis powders and their combination in alleviating the risks of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in young broiler chicks. One-day-old Ross 308 male broiler chickens were allocated to 6 experimental groups from d 1 to 21. The experimental dietary groups included: Negative control (NC) received the basal diet, Positive control (PC) containing 2 mg AFB1/kg diet; Positive control + 10 g/kg diet of Silybum marianum seed (SMS); Positive control + 10 g/kg diet of Thymus vulgaris (TV); Positive control + 5 g/kg diet of Rosmarinus officinalis (RO); Positive control + 10 g/kg diet of SMS + 10 g/kg diet of TV + 5 g/kg diet of RO as a blend of herbs (BH). There was no difference between feed intake and body weight gain among the experimental groups (P>0.05). In contrast, the feed conversion rate (FCR) in NC and SMS groups was lower than in other groups (P

Nanobodies (Nbs) have shown great potential in immunodetection of small-molecule contaminants in food and environmental monitoring. However, the limited knowledge of the mechanism of Nbs binding to small molecules has hampered the development of high-affinity Nbs and assay improvement. We previously reported two homologous nanobodies Nb26 and Nb28 specific to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), with the former exhibiting higher sensitivity in ELISA. Herein, Nb26 was selected as the model antibody to resolve its solution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) structure, and investigate its AFB1 recognition mechanism. The results revealed that Nb26 exhibits a typical immunoglobulin fold and its AFB1-binding interface is uniquely located in complementarity-determining region 3 (CDR3) and framework region 2 (FR2). This finding was applied to improve the binding activity of Nb28 against AFB1 by constructing two Nb28-based mutants A50V and S102D, resulting in 2.3- and 3.3-fold sensitivity enhancement over the wild type, respectively. This study develops an NMR-based strategy to analyze the underlying mechanism of Nb against AFB1, and successfully generated two site-modified Nbs with improved detection sensitivity. It is believed that this work could greatly expand the applications of Nbs by providing a way to enhance the binding activity.

Mycotoxins are toxic and carcinogenic metabolites produced by groups of filamentous fungi that colonize food crops. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) are among the most relevant agricultural mycotoxins, as they can induce various toxic processes in humans and animals. To detect AFB1, OTA and FB1 in the most varied matrices, chromatographic and immunological methods are primarily used; however, these techniques are time-consuming and expensive. In this study, we demonstrate that unitary alphatoxin nanopore can be used to detect and differentiate these mycotoxins in aqueous solution. The presence of AFB1, OTA or FB1 inside the nanopore induces reversible blockage of the ionic current flowing through the nanopore, with distinct characteristics of blockage that are unique to each of the three toxins. The process of discrimination is based on the residual current ratio calculation and analysis of the residence time of each mycotoxin inside the unitary nanopore. Using a single alphatoxin nanopore, the mycotoxins could be detected at the nanomolar level, indicating that alphatoxin nanopore is a promising molecular tool for discriminatory analysis of mycotoxins in aqueous solution.

The quality of corn is essential to determine whether the corn is still suitable for consumption and what type of corn it is. Corn is one type of vegetable that is indispensable for the nutritional needs of the Indonesian people today and is a mixture of other essential ingredients. Corn is rich in fiber, which is good for improving digestion and overcoming constipation, controlling blood sugar levels, maintaining heart health, overcoming depression, maintaining eye health, and preventing diverticulitis. In this research, image recognition is used to determine and detect the content of aflatoxin, which is one type of abnormality or disorder in corn. This affects the quality of corn, whether corn is suitable for human consumption, and what impact aflatoxin has on the human body. on testing using parameters Non UV image, SGW Filter Image θ = 0, 90, 180 and 270, and The resulting SGW image with the number of orientations N = 4, θ = θ + pi/N, and θ = θ + 2*pi/N, The aflatoxin content in humans can cause carcinogenic or liver cancer and acute necrosis, cirrhosis, and carcinoma in the animal liver.

In Mali, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third and sixth most common cancer in men and women, respectively. Mali comprises several distinct climato-ecological zones. Most studies to date have been conducted in the sub-Sahelian zone of southern Mali, including the capital city Bamako. In this part of the country, the main risk factors for HCC are chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) carriage and dietary exposure to aflatoxins, a well-known hepatocarcinogen. Data are scarce for other ecological zones, but our preliminary data from 721 blood donors in the area of Timbuktu, presented in this study, suggest that chronic HBV carriage is also endemic in the northern Saharan zone of Mali. For further study, 29 healthy HBV chronic carrier volunteers were recruited from the blood transfusion center in Timbuktu. Successful viral genotyping in 20 volunteers revealed HBV genotype E in 13 cases and D in 7 cases, suggesting that this geographical and anthropological transition zone may also represent a transition zone between HBV genotypes that dominate sub-Saharan and northern Africa, respectively. Sequencing of circulating cell-free plasma DNA (cfDNA) from donors did not reveal the presence of the TP53 R249S mutation in these donors, a marker of dietary exposure to aflatoxins in sub-Saharan Africa. These results suggest that the geo-epidemiological distribution of the risk factors for HCC is not uniform across Mali, but is dependent upon climatic, socioeconomic and anthropological factors that might have an impact on patterns of chronic liver disease and cancer.

Aflatoxins (AFs) are toxic fungal metabolites produced by fungi Aspergillus species, that are widely distributed in nature, and have severely contaminated humans and animal food supplies, posing in health hazards. We evaluated the aflatoxin surveillance from 2021 to 2022 in this paper. Throughout this period, a total of 1328 food samples, under the several food groups were collected for aflatoxin analysis and the results were compared against the statutory limits stipulated in the Mongolian National Standards (MNS). Depending on the type of food sample, AF contamination ranged from 3.2 to 83.3 percent, with a total AF level ranging from 0.20 to 4.1 g kg-1. Despite the fact that the values did not exceed the upper limits set by MNS for food products, AFs are still frequently found in food products at levels that necessitate a greater emphasis on public health protection. AFs are "natural" contaminants of foods. their emergence is unavoidable, and it is critical to detoxify contaminated food products chemically, physically, or biologically in ways that preserve their edibility

The high incidence of aflatoxins (AFs) in chocolates suggests the necessity to create a practical and cost-effective processing strategy for eliminating mycotoxins. The present study aimed to assess the adsorption abilities of activated charcoal (A. charcoal), yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), and the probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus as AFs adsorbents in three forms—sole, di- and tri-mix—in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) through an in vitro approach, simulated to mimic the conditions present in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) based on pH, time and AFs concentration. In addition, the novel fortification of chocolate with A. charcoal, probiotic, and yeast (tri-mix adsorbents) was evaluated for its effects on the sensory properties. Using HPLC, 60 samples of dark, milk, bitter, couverture, powder, and wafer chocolates were examined for the presence of AFs. Results showed that all the examined samples contained AFs, with maximum concentrations of 2.32, 1.81, and 1.66 µg/kg for powder, milk, and dark chocolates, respectively. The combined treatment demonstrated the highest adsorption efficiency (96.8%) among all tested compounds. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis revealed the tested adsorbents to be effective AF-binding agents. Moreover, the novel combination of tri-mix fortified chocolate had a minor cytotoxicity impact on the adsorptive abilities, with the highest binding at pH 6.8 for 4 h, in addition to inducing an insignificant effect on the sensory attributes of dark chocolate. Tri-mix is thus recommended in the manufacturing of dark chocolate in order to enhance the safety of the newly developed product.

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), a hepatotoxic metabolite, occurs due to the consumption of feeds contaminated with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) by lactating animals. This study aims to specify the presence and levels of AFM1 in water buffalo milk produced widely in our region. Between the years 2019 - 2021, a total of 250 raw water buffalo milk samples were used as material. All samples were transported to the laboratory in the cold chain (4 °C) and analyzed. Tests were done with ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay) technique and AFM1 specific test kits Ridascreen® Aflatoxin M1, r-biopharm were used for detection of AFM1. First, the samples were prepared as described in the kit manufacturer’s instructions. Later, for the calculation of AFM1 levels, RIDASOFT WIN.NET software was also used as recommended. Two hundred and fifty raw water buffalo milk samples were analyzed in duplicate, and the average values of the results was taken into account. While AFM1 was not detected in 174 samples (69.6%), 76 sample (30.4%) was contaminated with AFM1. However, it was observed that the AFM1 levels of these 76 samples did not exceed the levels specified in the Turkish Food Codex. In conclusion, although water buffalo milk and dairy products pose a potential risk in AFM1, this risk was found relatively low in samples belong to our region. However, this situation may vary depending on the feeding conditions of lactating animals and sampling season. Therefore, it is recommended that similar and further studies are needed to diversify the data in the future.

BACKROUND The study aims to reveal effects of hexanoic acid on microbial community, fermentation and hygienic quality of corn silages with or without fungal infection. Fungal infested (FI) and non-infested (NFI) whole-crop corn were separately ensiled without (control, CON) or with Hexanoic acid (Hex, 90% purity) at 0.2 g·kg-1 fresh weight (FW). RESULT The addition of Hex accelerated the pH decline during the first 5 d of ensiling regardless of fungal infestation. The lactic acid (LA) concentration in Hex silages was lower than that of CON during 45 d of ensiling, however the FI-Hex silage had the highest LA concentration among treatments on d 90. The Hex silage showed lower aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ), zearalenone (ZEA), and deoxynivalenol (DON) concentrations than CON for FI silages. On d 5, the addition of Hex decreased the relative abundance of Klebsiella, Pantoea, and Enterobacter compared with CON regardless of fungal infestation, this inhibitory effect last until d 90 for NFI silages but disappeared for FI silages on d 90. The fungal infestation resulted in accumulation of Candida (34.05%) and Wickerhamomyces (19.46%). Hex decreased the relative abundance of Asperigillus, Issatchenkia and Penicillium for NFI silages on d 5, however its inhibitory effects was not observed in FI silages on d 5. CONCLUSION Fungal infestation was associated with poor fermentation and hygienic quality of corn silage, adding Hex accelerated the pH decline and maintained the antifungal activity until 90 d of ensiling, attenuating adverse effects of fungal infestation on the fermentation and preventing the accumulation of mycotoxins in corn silages. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus) is one of the most important model environmental fungi which can produce a potent toxin and carcinogen known as aflatoxin. Aflatoxin contamination causes massive agricultural economic loss and a critical human health issue each year. Although a functional vacuole has been highlighted for its fundamental importance in fungal virulence, the molecular mechanisms of the vacuole in regulating the virulence of A. flavus remain largely unknown. Here, we identified a novel vacuole-related protein in A. flavus, the ortholog of phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate-5-kinase (Fab1) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This kinase was located at the vacuolar membrane, and loss of fab1 function was found to affect the growth, conidia and sclerotial development, cellular acidification and metal ion homeostasis, aflatoxin production and pathogenicity of A. flavus. Further functional analysis revealed that Fab1 was required to maintain the vacuole size and cell morphology. Additional quantitative proteomic analysis suggested that Fab1 was likely to play an important role in maintaining vacuolar/cellular homeostasis, with vacuolar dysregulation upon fab1 deletion leading to impaired aflatoxin synthesis in this fungus. Together, these results provide insight into the molecular mechanisms by which this pathogen produces aflatoxin and mediates its pathogenicity, and may facilitate dissection of the vacuole-mediated regulatory network in A. flavus.

In recent years, the growth of the field of medicinal herbs and the increased demand for plant-derived products have raised questions about their safety for consumer health. The evaluation of mycotoxins and pesticide residues in these matrices are among the major concerns. For this reason, forty-seven samples of different medicinal herbs were purchased from Italian herbal shops and the presence of these contaminants was assessed. AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2 and OTA A were characterised using high-performance chromatography with a FLD detector (LOQs were set at 0.375 μg/kg for aflatoxins and 1.0 μg/kg for ochratoxin A). A QuEChERS modified method was used for pesticide residue determination followed by GC–MS/MS and LC–MS/MS analysis (LOQ was set at 0.005 mg/kg). The two strategies proved to be complementary and contributed to a greater pesticide residues characterisation. About thirty percent of the samples analysed were found to be contaminated. Data highlighted the importance and the need to implement international monitoring in these types of matrices.

Aflatoxin is widely known as human and animal carcinogen that can contaminate food and feed stuffs. It is also known as a major food quality problems all over the world. Aflatoxins are group of naturally occurring mycotoxins that are mainly produced by fungus Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. There are seven (7) major groups of mycotoxins reported, which produced by different species of toxigenic fungal genus. The production of mycotoxins from these toxigenic fungi based on the surrounding intrinsic and extrinsic environments. These groups of mycotoxins that contaminates grains, foods and animal feeds are known as Aflatoxin, Trichothecene, Ochratoxins, Ergot alkaloid (Ergolin), Zearalenone, Patulin and Fumonisins. These mycotoxins could cause health hazards and death for human and animals by affecting the mammalian cells, causing some problems in normal cell function and a wide variety of clinical symptoms of diseases. These seven groups of mycotoxin are varied in their toxicity depending on the infection host i.e. human or animal, and also the immunity of human and animals. Soybean is an important food and nutritional security crop world widely. It is also promoted due to its potentiality in proteins for both adults as an infant weaning food.

Aflatoxin, a carcinogenic secondary metabolite produced by Aspergillus flavus, is a significant threat to human health and agricultural production. Histone 2-hydroxyisobutyrylation is a novel post-translational modification that regulates various biological processes, including secondary metabolism. In this study, we identified the novel histone 2-hydroxyisobutyryltransferase Afngg1 in A. flavus, and explored its role in cell growth, development and aflatoxin biosynthesis. Afngg1 gene deletion markedly decreased lysine 2-hydroxyisobutyrylation modification of histones H4K5 and H4K8 compared with the control strain. Additionally, Afngg1 deletion inhibited mycelial growth of A. flavus, and the number of conidia and hydrophobicity were significantly decreased. Notably, aflatoxin B1 biosynthesis and sclerotia production were completely inhibited in the ΔAfngg1 strain. Furthermore, the pathogenicity of the ΔAfngg1 strain infecting peanut and corn grains was also diminished, including reduced spore production and aflatoxin biosynthesis compared with A. flavus control and Afngg1 complementation strains. Transcriptome analysis showed that, compared with control strains, differentially expressed genes in ΔAfngg1 were mainly involved in chromatin remodelling, cell development, secondary metabolism and oxidative stress. These results suggest that Afngg1 is involved in histone 2-hydroxyisobutyrylation and chromatin modification, and thus affects cell development and aflatoxin biosynthesis in A. flavus. Our results lay a foundation for in-depth research on the 2-hydroxyisobutyrylation modification in A. flavus, and may provide a novel target for aflatoxin contamination prevention.

Aflatoxin, a naturally occurring toxin produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus, is the most economically important mycotoxin in the world, with harmful effects on human and animal health. Preventive measures such as irrigation and planting dates can minimize aflatoxin contamination most years. However, no control strategy is completely effective when environmental conditions are extremely favorable for growth of the fungus. The most effective control method is growing maize hybrids with genetic resistance to aflatoxin contamination. The aim of this research was to evaluate the sensitivity of different maize hybrids to A. flavus infection and aflatoxin accumulation. Twenty commercial maize hybrids were evaluated in field trials with artificial inoculations using the colonized toothpicks method. The mycotoxin production potential of A. flavus isolates was confirmed by cluster amplification patterns (CAPs) analysis. The results of this research indicated the existence of significant differences in maize hybrids susceptibility to Aspergillus ear rot and aflatoxin B1 accumulation. No hybrid included in this research showed complete resistance in all conditions, but some hybrids showed partial resistance. Different hybrids also responded differently depending on the sowing date. This research showed that infection intensity is not always consistent with aflatoxin levels, and therefore visual evaluation is not enough to assess maize safety.

Aflatoxin is a carcinogenic secondary metabolite that poses a serious threat to human and animal health. Some C2H2 transcription factors are associated with fungal growth and secondary metabolic regulation. In this study, we characterized the role of AflZKS3, a putative C2H2 transcription factor based on genome annotation, in the growth and aflatoxin biosynthesis of A. flavus and explored its possible mechanisms of action. Surprisingly, the protein was found to be located in the cytoplasm, and gene deletion in A. flavus resulted in defective growth and conidia formation, as well as increased sensitivity to the fluorescent brightener Calcofluor white, Congo red, NaCl, and sorbitol stress. Notably, the biosynthesis of aflatoxin B1 was completely inhibited in the ΔAflZKS3 deletion strain, and its ability to infect peanut and corn seeds was also reduced. RNA sequencing showed that differentially expressed genes in the ΔAflZKS3 strain compared with the control and complementation strains were mainly associated with growth, aflatoxin biosynthesis, and oxidative stress. Thus, AflZKS3 likely contributes to growth, cell development, and aflatoxin synthesis in A. flavus. These findings lay the foundation for a deeper understanding of the roles of C2H2 transcription factors in A. flavus and provide a potential biocontrol target for preventing aflatoxin contamination.

Aflatoxin can cross the blood–brain barrier, damage brain tissues, and have the potential to harm the development of the human brain. Although dietary aflatoxin exposure is common in children, there is a paucity of data on aflatoxin exposure and child developmental outcomes. The child’s cognitive, motor, and language functions were assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-III or BSID-III at the same time points. Association between exposure to aflatoxin and subtests of BSID-III were examined using mixed-effect linear regression. Aflatoxin assays were performed on 194, 167, and 163 children at 15, 24, and 36 months of age, and chronic aflatoxin exposure was detected in 20.6%, 16.8%, and 60.7% of children, respectively. Multi-variable analyses showed that aflatoxin exposure was independently related to the children’s cognitive score (β: −0.69; 95% CI: −1.36, −0.02), receptive language score (β: −0.90; 95% CI: −1.62, −0.17), and expressive language score (β: −1.01; 95% CI: −1.96, −0.05). We did not observe any association between exposure to aflatoxin and the motor function of children. Chronic exposure to aflatoxin exposure was linked to reduced cognitive, expressive, and receptive language scores of the study children. Further research is needed in a different setting to confirm this novel finding.

This study aimed at investigating the prevalence of different mould genera and total aflatoxins (AFTs) content in the retailed frozen chicken breast, thigh, and giblets, including wings, livers, and gizzards. Furthermore, the estimated daily intakes (EDI) of AFTs were calculated. Aflatoxin-related cancer risks among Egyptian adults and children were further assessed using the margin of exposure (MOE) approach. The obtained results indicated mould contamination of the examined chicken breast, thigh, wings, livers, and gizzards at 40%, 30%, 25%, 70%, and 60%, respectively. Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp. were the most predominant mould genera among the examined samples. Further identification of the isolated Aspergilli revealed that Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus were the dominant Aspergillus spp. AFTs were detected only in 40% and 25% of the examined liver and gizzard samples, respectively. Positive correlations between AFTs and total mould counts in both livers and gizzards were observed. Calculation of the EDI and MOE of AFTs via consumption of chicken livers and gizzards revealed that excessive consumption of such products represents a potential risk, particularly among children. Therefore, it is highly recommended to adopt strict hygienic measures during the processing and storage of chicken carcasses and reduce the daily intake of chicken livers and giblets.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), as the main metabolite, found in aflatoxin contaminated food is highly toxic and strictly controlled in many countries. Aiming to construct a simplified, highly sensitive, and accurate quantitative detection platform of AFB1 in ordinary conditions, a one-step competitive quantum dot-labeled immunosorbent assay (cQLISA) was developed using biocompatible CdSe/ZnS core/shell quantum dots (QDs). The quantitative detection of AFB1 can be achieved by adding food sample and QD-AFB1 antibody simultaneously, with an analytical range between 1 and 40 ng/mL. The half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of this method is 542 pg/mL and the limit of detection (LOD) is 56 pg/mL for standard samples, demonstrating a twofold improvement in sensitivity compared with that of the commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test kit. The recovery rates of negative corn spike-in samples range from 87.01 to114.7% (CV

Increased environmental pollution and unhealthy lifestyle are blamed for escalated chronic diseases. Exposure to aflatoxins was recently suggested to have a role in the increased incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diet modification and consumption of different functional food are now gaining attention, especially in diabetes management. This study investigates the effect of a diet containing barley microgreen against diabetes induced by streptozotocin with or without aflatoxin administration in rats. Barley microgreen was rich in 3′-Benzyloxy-5,6,7,4′-tetramethoxyflavone (48.8% of total) followed by 5β,7βH,10α-Eudesm-11-en-1α-ol (18.46%). Streptozotocin injection and/or aflatoxin administration significantly elevated glucose level, decreased insulin level, decreased β-cell function, deteriorated liver and kidney function parameters, and induced oxidative stress in the liver. Histopathology revealed irregular small-sized islets and decreased area % of insulin-positive beta cells in the pancreas, hepatic degeneration, nephropathy, and neuropathy in diabetic and/or aflatoxin administered rats compared to control. Barley microgreen diet fed to diabetic rats with or without aflatoxin alleviated all evaluated parameters. Barley microgreen diet also ameliorated the toxic effect of aflatoxin. In conclusion, exposure to aflatoxin aggravated diabetes and its complication. The incorporation of barley microgreen in the diet was able to control type 2 diabetes mellitus and the improved outcomes observed with barley microgreen treatments involved or occurred in conjunction with improved biomarkers of oxidative stress.

Detoxification of aflatoxin M1 from solution and milk using layered double hydroxides was investigated. The Aluminum-Magnesium layered double hydroxide (Al-Mg LDH) and Iron-Magnesium layered double hydroxide (Fe-Mg LDH) were selected in their calcined and non-calcined forms to evaluate the effect of the calcination on detoxification. These materials were produced using the co-precipitation method. Preliminary adsorption tests confirmed use of Al-Mg LDH as the selected adsorbent. Characteristics of the adopted adsorbent were studied and confirmed by XRD, FTIR, SEM, and BET methods. Effects of the initial content of aflatoxin, amount of the adsorbents and detoxification time were investigated. Influence of the adsorbents on the nutritional aspects of milk were also studied. The study showed that while the non-calcined forms of LDH were not able to adsorb aflatoxin M1 more than 23%, the calcined form of Al-Mg LDH exhibited 100% adsorption in the solutions and about 70-100% in the contaminated milk samples. The reason is pointed to the fact that calcination of Al-Mg LDH considerably increased the surface area, the total pore volume, and the pore size of the material. Multivariate regression analysis and calculation of the Pearson correlation factor showed that the remained aflatoxin at each time was more strongly correlated with the initial amount of aflatoxin and the elapsed time and less strongly with the amount of the adsorbent. It was found that the adsorption isotherms fitted to the Freundlich equation with a high adsorption capacity of 555.5 mg g-1. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study is focused on examining ability of layered double hydroxides (LDH) for adsorbing AFM1 . LDHs are promising layered materials due to some of their interesting characteristics, such as ease of synthesis and uniqueness of structure. In practice, results of this study can be used for detoxification of aflatoxin, especially in milk, at high efficiency in shorter time durations.

Aflatoxins (AFs) are genotoxic carcinogens and are a growing concern in peanuts and peanut products. This study aims to impact of different extraction processes on the transition of AFs from peanuts to oils. Peanuts were collected from nine different factories in Osmaniye, Turkey, during the period of November 2017-May 2018. While no aflatoxin G(1) (AFG(1)) and aflatoxin G(2) (AFG(2)) were detected in peanuts, aflatoxin B-1 (AFB(1)) and aflatoxin B-2 (AFB(2)) were determined in all peanut samples at levels varying from 26.7 to 234.7 mu g kg(-1) and from 4.44 to 44.0 mu g kg(-1), respectively. No AFs were quantified in oils obtained by the industrial application method. The ratios of AFB(1) transitions to oils obtained by solvent extraction, cold pressing of roasted peanuts and cold pressing methods were 9.0-79.8%, 11.3-75.3% and 9.3-77.6%, respectively. The concentrations of AFB(2) in oils obtained by solvent extraction, cold pressing of roasted peanuts and cold pressing methods were 0.46-17.2 mu g kg(-1), 0.84-33.0 mu g kg(-1) and 1.02-36.3 mu g kg(-1), respectively. This is the first demonstration of the impact of different extraction processes on the transition of AFs from peanuts to oils.

The multimycotoxin analysis of aflatoxins (AFs), zearalenone (ZEA), ochratoxin A (OTA), enniatins (ENNs) and beauvericin (BEA) was performed in 85 samples of medicinal herbs dietary supplements. The samples were classified in 64 samples of one herbal ingredient and 21 mixed samples. The extraction was performed by QuEChERS method and the determination by liquid chromatography coupled to ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS-IT). Then, the risk characterization to mycotoxins through the consumption of medicinal herbs dietary supplements was assessed. The results showed that ZEA, OTA, ENNs and BEA showed in the samples with incidences between 1 and 34%, being ENNB the most detected mycotoxin. Mycotoxins contents ranged from LOQ to 3850.5 µg/kg while the mean of positives samples were 65.5 µg/kg (ENNA), 82.7 µg/kg (ENNA1), 88.7 µg/kg (ENNB), 324.9 µg/kg (ENNB1), 137.9 µg/kg (BEA) and 1340.11 µg/kg (ZEA), respectively. OTA was detected in one herbal mix tablet for insomnia at concentration of 799 μg/kg. In herbal drugs the European Pharmacopoeia Commission has implemented limits of 2 µg/kg for AFB1 and 4 µg/kg for total AFs. In the present study AFs have not been detected in the analyzed medicinal herbs dietary supplements. The Estimated Daily Intakes (EDIs) values were calculated using a deterministic method, considering two exposure scenarios (lower bound (LB) and upper bound (UB)). The values obtained were in general far below the Tolerable Daily Intakes (TDIs) established. Graphical abstract

BACKGROUND Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ) is the most dangerous of the mycotoxins that contaminate cereal seeds naturally. A stress lignin formation is linked with the accumulation of reactive oxygen species causing a change in the redox status and formation of stable organic radicals, constituting the first layer of defense. The relationship between AFB1 and changes in lignin organic free radicals in seeds is not known, nor is the part of the seed that is more targeted. Using optical and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, we investigated AFB1 -induced changes in lignin and organic free radicals in seeds, and whether the inner and outer seed fractions differ in response to increasing AFB1 . RESULTS Different changes in the content of lignin and free radicals with increasing AFB1 concentrations were observed in the two seed fractions. There was a significant positive linear correlation (R = 0.9923, P = 0.00005) between lignin content and AFB1 concentration in the outer fraction, and no correlation between the lignin content and the AFB1 concentration in the inner fraction. We found a positive correlation between the area of the green spectral emission component (C4) and the AFB1 concentration in the outer fraction. CONCLUSIONS To the best of our knowledge, the results showed, for the first time, that maize seed fractions respond differently to aflatoxin with regard to their lignin and organic free radical content. Lignin content and (C4) area may be reliable indicators for the screening of lignin changes against AFB1 content in the seeds, and thus for seed protection capacity. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Aspergillus flavus is saprophytic soil fungus that contaminates seed crops with the carcinogenic secondary metabolite aflatoxin, posing a significant threat to humans and animals. Ferrous sulfate is a common iron supplement that is used to the treatment of iron-deficiency anemia. Here, we identified an unexpected inhibitory role of ferrous sulfate on A. flavus. With specific fluorescent dyes, we detected several conidial ferroptosis hallmarks in conidia under the treatment of 1 mM Fe2+, including nonapoptosis necrosis, iron-dependent, lipid peroxide accumulation, and ROS burst. However, unlike traditional ferroptosis in mammals, Fe2+ triggered conidial ferroptosis in A. flavus was regulated by NADPH oxidase (NOXs) activation instead of Fenton reaction. Transcriptomic and some other bioinformatics analyses showed that NoxA in A. flavus might be a potential target of Fe2+, and thus led to the occurrence of conidial ferroptosis. Furthermore, noxA deletion mutant was constructed, and both ROS generation and conidial ferroptosis in ΔnoxA was reduced when exposed to Fe2+. Taken together, our study revealed an exogenous Fe2+-triggered conidial ferroptosis pathway mediated by NoxA of A. flavus, which greatly contributes to the development of an alternative strategy to control this pathogen.