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The Country Program Evaluation (CPE) for Tanzania assesses the World Bank Group’s effectiveness and relevance in its work to help Tanzania address its key development challenges. The CPE will encompass two Bank Group strategy periods covering fiscal years (FY)12–16 and FY18–22. The evaluation aims to inform the next Bank Group Country Partnership Framework for Tanzania.

BackgroundThere is a clear gender gap in scientific authorship. Although the proportions of female authors in medicine and psychiatry have increased over the past decades, women are still underrepresented.AimsTo analyse authorship gender trends in eating disorder research.MethodFirst and last author gender in research articles on eating disorders during the period 1997–2016 were assessed in eating disorder specialty journals, high-impact psychiatry journals and high-impact clinical psychology journals.ResultsThe total number of papers on eating disorders increased substantially over the observation period, although a decrease was observed in high-impact psychiatry journals. Female authorship increased in both specialty journals and high-impact psychiatry journals. Authors were significantly less likely to be female in high-impact psychiatry and clinical psychology journals than in speciality journals.ConclusionsEating disorder research has been increasingly allocated to specialty journals over the past 20 years. A consistent gender gap between specialty and high-impact journals exists.Declaration of interestC.M.B is a grant recipient from Shire Pharmaceuticals, Inc. and has participated as a member of their scientific advisory board. These positions are unrelated to the content of this article.

The book collects the short papers presented at the 13th Scientific Meeting of the Classification and Data Analysis Group (CLADAG) of the Italian Statistical Society (SIS). The meeting has been organized by the Department of Statistics, Computer Science and Applications of the University of Florence, under the auspices of the Italian Statistical Society and the International Federation of Classification Societies (IFCS). CLADAG is a member of the IFCS, a federation of national, regional, and linguistically-based classification societies. It is a non-profit, non-political scientific organization, whose aims are to further classification research.

Since the 2008 global crisis, financial literacy has come into the spotlight, but the available definitions are of theoretical nature addressing major issues appeared in specific economies, as presented here through an in-depth analysis of the literature. While the common focus has been on the United States, the economic infrastructure of Europe is very diverse. Despite the global epidemic of the crisis, its pattern was not globally the same. Utilising the current definitions without considering their validity has caused a misconception for inspecting emerging problems. Therefore, a new definition of financial literacy is proposed, which can be universally applied to various types of economies. The approach is to find the appropriate perspective for tailoring the framework of financial literacy for specific environments. Applying this definition to typical cases revealed that some of the key problems discussed in the literature are not indeed the critical issues, while major problems are usually neglected. The best example is the case of the gender gap where we might need to find new solutions as most of the previous studies have been based on inappropriate (or at least less practical) premises.

We analyze changes in the gender structure at the top of the earnings distribution in the United States over the last 30 years using a 10% sample of individual earnings histories from the Social Security Administration. Despite making large inroads, females still constitute a small proportion of the top percentiles: the glass ceiling, albeit a thinner one, remains. We measure the contribution of changes in labor force participation, changes in the persistence of top earnings, and changes in industry and age composition to the change in the gender composition of top earners. A large proportion of the increased share of females among top earners is accounted for by the mending of, what we refer to as, the paper floor - the phenomenon whereby female top earners were much more likely than male top earners to drop out of the top percentiles. We also provide new evidence at the top of the earnings distribution for both genders: the rising share of top earnings accruing to workers in the Finance and Insurance industry, the relative transitory status of top earners, the emergence of top earnings gender gaps over the life cycle, and gender differences among lifetime top earners.

This report is a joint study between the European Commission (EC), the World Bank, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). It aims to inform employment support, activation, and social inclusion policy making, through an improved understanding of labor-market barriers. Covering 12 countries, the study builds on the previous joint EC and World Bank study to map the diversity of profiles of individuals who are out of work in six countries (Sundaram et al., 2014) and other analyses that characterize individuals with labor market difficulties (European Commission, 2012; Ferré et al., 2013; Immervoll, 2013). The study expands the previous analysis by looking at a broader group of labor market vulnerable beyond the out of work individuals to include: those in unstable employment, those with restricted hours, and those with near-zero incomes (i.e. individuals who are marginally employed). It also refines the analytical methodology by applying an employment barriers framework to facilitate policy making and country-specific application, and to provide a reference point for future methodological extensions.

This is a joint study between the European Commission (EC), the World Bank, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which aims to inform employment support, activation, and social inclusion policy making, through an improved understanding of labor-market barriers.

The aim of this report is to provide a broad overview of the current state of gender equality in Tajikistan. While the Europe and Central Asia (ECA) region traditionally surpassed many other regions in terms of gender equality, this advantage has been eroding in recent decades. Particularly in Tajikistan, concerns have been raised that men and women have unequally born the consequences of economic, political, and social transitions after independence in 1991. The report examines several dimensions of gender equality both quantitatively and qualitatively. Tajikistan has set up a legal framework that enshrines principles of equality and non-discrimination, but better implementation results require continued efforts. Prevailing social norms and patriarchal systems of decision-making limit women s ability to make effective choices be it at home or at work. The paper is structured along the following lines. The first section introduces the idea of agency that will remain an important issue throughout the report. This is followed by an analysis of disparities in human capital endowment, including health and education. Gender gaps in the Tajik labor market and entrepreneurial activities of men and women are discussed in the fourth and fifth section. The final section concludes with some policy recommendations that might be beneficial for discussions among policy-makers, civil society actors, and development partners.

Introduction Males have a higher prevalence of waterpipe tobacco smoking (WTS) than females in most Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR) countries, with a smaller gender gap than that of cigarette smoking. The objective of this study was to determine gender differences among university students with respect to WTS initiation, smoking behavior, tobacco flavors, and expenditure on WTS, in four EMR countries. Methods A cross-sectional online survey was conducted based on convenient samples of ever waterpipe smokers among university students in four EMR countries (Egypt, Jordan, Occupied Palestinian Territories, and the United Arab Emirates) in 2016. The total samples included 2470 participants. Study participants were invited through flyers, university portals, emails and Facebook, followed by emails with links to the internet survey. Results Females (80.4%) were more likely than males (66.4%, p

Parity of authorship should be a priority for journals, universities, and funding agencies Women have been attending medical school in numbers equal to or greater than those of men since 1996 in the United Kingdom,1 and in nearly equal numbers in the United States since 2003.2 However, despite parity in medical school admissions, substantial gender differences in rank and leadership remain in academic medicine. The progress of women attaining first and senior authorship of original research publications, the currency of success for promotion in academic medicine, will directly translate into equity of academic advancement for women in the future. In a linked paper (doi:10.1136/bmj.i847),3 Filardo and colleagues examined the prevalence of female first authorship among original research articles published over the past two decades (1994-2014) in six high impact general medical journals. This study is notable for its rigor, examining six issues a year for all selected journals throughout the 20 year study period and using online searches of authors to identify gender in those with ambiguous names. The authors report some good news—an …

This paper proposes to measure and to evaluate gender gaps and gender inequalities by means of the decomposition of an inequality measure. A three-terms decomposition of the Gini index is applied, thus allowing to take into account also the role of overlapping between female and male subpopulations. We develop an unified framework for the evaluation of gender gap, linking traditional measures, based on subgroups income means, to the approach related to inequality decomposition, and showing how overlapping component represents a key issue in gender gap analysis. An analysis of the income distribution of the Italian households shows how gender gaps represent a major source of inequality, without particular improvements during the last 20 years.

Background Although men are more prone to developing cardiovascular disease (CVD) than women, risk factors for CVD, such as nicotine abuse and diabetes mellitus, have been shown to be more detrimental in women than in men. Objective We developed a method to systematically investigate population-wide electronic health records for all possible associations between risk factors for CVD and other diagnoses. The developed structured approach allows an exploratory and comprehensive screening of all possible comorbidities of CVD, which are more connected to CVD in either men or women. Methods Based on a population-wide medical claims dataset comprising 44 million records of inpatient stays in Austria from 2003 to 2014, we determined comorbidities of acute myocardial infarction (AMI; International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision [ICD-10] code I21) and chronic ischemic heart disease (CHD; ICD-10 code I25) with a significantly different prevalence in men and women. We introduced a measure of sex difference as a measure of differences in logarithmic odds ratios (ORs) between male and female patients in units of pooled standard errors. Results Except for lipid metabolism disorders (OR for females [ORf]=6.68, 95% confidence interval [CI]=6.57-6.79, OR for males [ORm]=8.31, 95% CI=8.21-8.41), all identified comorbidities were more likely to be associated with AMI and CHD in females than in males: nicotine dependence (ORf=6.16, 95% CI=5.96-6.36, ORm=4.43, 95% CI=4.35-4.5), diabetes mellitus (ORf=3.52, 95% CI=3.45-3.59, ORm=3.13, 95% CI=3.07-3.19), obesity (ORf=3.64, 95% CI=3.56-3.72, ORm=3.33, 95% CI=3.27-3.39), renal disorders (ORf=4.27, 95% CI=4.11-4.44, ORm=3.74, 95% CI=3.67-3.81), asthma (ORf=2.09, 95% CI=1.96-2.23, ORm=1.59, 95% CI=1.5-1.68), and COPD (ORf=2.09, 95% CI 1.96-2.23, ORm=1.59, 95% CI 1.5-1.68). Similar results could be observed for AMI. Conclusions Although AMI and CHD are more prevalent in men, women appear to be more affected by certain comorbidities of AMI and CHD in their risk for developing CVD.

In the Constitution of India in 1951 it was set out that… “the State shall endeavour to provide within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years”. But at the turn of the century nearly 424 million are still illiterate while it is estimated that nearly 35 million children in the age of 6-10 years age group are still out of school. The statistics for female education make even more dismal reading. Although the field of education is considered to be the prime responsibility of the State yet there is mushrooming growth of non-governmental organisations (NGOs). The impact of these NGOs is rarely reflected in overall educational performance and their approach is seldom transferred to the mainstream.

Multiple studies show that women are under-represented in almost all of fields of Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths (STEM). This gender gap is also present at higher education institutions in both student numbers and academic staff. A range of measures could be implemented to tackle this issue. In this position paper, we outline the measures that the School of Computer Sciences and Informatics of Cardiff University, UK, implemented over the past years, to foster a culture in which women could excel. Then, we discuss the measures that we plan to implement in future in order to increase the number of women both among students and academic staff.

In Latin America, labor markets have been the main channel through which growth has reduced poverty, with higher labor income accounting for 49 percent of the reduction in poverty in 2008–13. Understanding labor markets is critical to designing policies and programs aimed at reducing poverty. With close to 70 percent of the population under age 30 years, labor markets are bound to be central to defining Haiti's future. Yet, labor analysis in Haiti has been constrained by the dearth of data and the focus on measuring the impact of the 2010 earthquake. This present paper contributes to filling this gap by providing an overview of Haiti's labor markets and the determinants of labor income over a decade, focusing on growing urban areas. The paper also contributes to the research on Haiti in general, as well as labor markets in fragile countries such as Haiti, in particular through an unprecedented effort to harmonize three household surveys conducted between 2001 and 2012. Building on this exercise, the study provides new insights into the development of labor markets in a particularly turbulent decade for Haiti, one that was marked by the political crisis of 2004 and the earthquake of 2010. In spite of the earthquake, the analysis shows that Haiti’s labor markets are characterized by continuity over the period. Somewhat surprisingly, the defining features remain overall unchanged in spite of the shock, pointing to heavy forces shaping economic and labor dynamics.

Building on recent analyses that find a sizeable overall gender wage gap in Azerbaijan's workforce, this paper uses data on young workers in their early years in the labor market to understand how gender wage gaps evolve over time, if at all. The paper uses a unique database from a survey of young people ages 15–29 years. The analysis provides evidence that new labor market entrants begin with little or no gender differences in earnings, but a wage gap gradually emerges over time closer to the childbearing years. The gender wage gap grows from virtually zero, or even a small, positive gap in favor of women, until age 20 years, to about 20 percent two years later and even more than 30 percent at age 29 years. The gap in labor supply rises from almost zero to about 20 percent during the years from 19 to 22, while the gap in hours worked falls from positive (up to six hours per week more than their male counterparts) to negative (up to five hours per week less) over the same period in the life cycle. When decomposing the gap at different deciles of the wage distribution, it appears that most of it is at the lower and upper ends of the distribution, among young adults and prime-age workers. Selection of women into employment is strong and strongly skill-based: when controlling for sample selection bias, the gender gap becomes positive.

Although women’s police centers have been gaining popularity as a measure to address domestic violence, to date no quantitative evaluations of their impacts on the incidence of domestic violence or any other manifestations of gender equality have been done. This paper estimates the effects of women’s police stations in Brazil on female homicides, as a measure of the most severe form of domestic violence. Given that a high fraction of female deaths among women ages 15 to 49 years can be attributed to aggression by an intimate partner, female homicides appear the best available proxy for severe domestic violence considering the scarcity of data on domestic violence. The paper uses a panel of 2,074 municipalities and takes advantage of the gradual rollout of women’s police stations from 2004 to 2009, to estimate the effect of establishing a women’s police station on the municipal female homicide rate. Although the analysis does not find an association on average, women’s police stations appear to be highly effective among some groups of women: women living in metropolitan areas and younger women. Establishing a women’s police station in a metropolitan municipality is associated with a reduction in the homicide rate by 1.23 deaths per 100,000 women (which roughly amounts to a 17 percent reduction in the average homicide rate in metropolitan municipalities). The reduction in the homicide rate of women ages 15 to 24 is even higher: 5.57 deaths per 100,000 women. Qualitative work suggests that better economic opportunities and less traditional social norms in metropolitan areas may explain the heterogeneous impacts of women’s police stations in metropolitan areas and outside them.

Diagnostic delay is common in most respiratory diseases, particularly in bronchiectasis. However, sex bias in diagnostic delay has not been studied to date. Objective: Assessment of diagnostic delay in bronchiectasis by sex. Methods: The Spanish Historical Registry of Bronchiectasis recruited adults diagnosed with bronchiectasis from 2002 to 2011 in 36 centres in Spain. From a total of 2113 patients registered we studied 2099, of whom 1125 (53.6%) were women. Results: No differences were found for sex or age (61.0 ± 20.6, p = 0.88) or for localization of bronchiectasis ( p = 0.31). Bronchiectasis of unknown aetiology and secondary to asthma, childhood infections and tuberculosis was more common in women (all ps < 0.05). More men than women were chronic obstructive pulmonary disease-related bronchiectasis and colonized by Haemophilus influenzae ( p < 0.001 for both). Onset of symptoms was earlier in women. The diagnostic delay for women with bronchiectasis was 2.1 years more than for men ( p = 0.001). Discussion: We recorded a substantial delay in the diagnosis of bronchiectasis. This delay was significantly longer in women than in men (>2 years). Independent factors associated with this sex bias were age at onset of symptoms, smoking history, daily expectoration and reduced lung function.

Biases from truncation caused by coresidency restriction have been a challenge for research on intergenerational mobility. Estimates of intergenerational schooling persistence from two data sets show that the intergenerational regression coefficient, the most widely used measure, is severely biased downward in coresident samples. But the bias in intergenerational correlation is much smaller, and is less sensitive to the coresidency rate. The paper provides explanations for these results. Comparison of intergenerational mobility based on the intergenerational regression coefficient across countries, gender, and over time can be misleading. Much progress on intergenerational mobility in developing countries can be made with the available data by focusing on intergenerational correlation.

This paper decomposes the gender gap in pay in the Russian Federation along the earnings distribution for the period 1996–2011. The analysis uses a reweighted, recentered influence function decomposition that allows estimating the contribution of each covariate on the wage structure and composition effects along the earnings distribution. The paper finds that women are in flat career paths compared with men; the importance of observable characteristics that proxy human capital in the gender pay gap decrease along the earnings distribution; and if women’s pay took into account their educational degrees as much as men’s, the gender pay gap would disappear or even reverse at the top of the earnings distribution. The results suggest that women at the bottom of the earnings distribution should be helped to increase their labor market skills, and women at the top of the distribution should be helped to break the glass ceiling and be remunerated for their skills to the same extent as men.

In this paper, survey data are used to document the presence of gender gaps in self-employment, employership, and labor force participation in seven Balkan countries and Turkey. The paper examines the quantitative effects of the gender gaps on aggregate productivity and income per capita in these countries. In the model used to carry out this calculation, agents choose between being workers, self-employed, or employers, and women face several restrictions in the labor market. The data display very large gaps in labor force participation and in the percentage of employers and self-employed in the labor force. In almost all cases, these gaps reveal a clear underrepresentation of women. The calculations show that, on average, the loss associated with these gaps is about 17 percent of income per capita. One-third of this loss is due to distortions in the choice of occupations between men and women. The remaining two-thirds corresponds to the costs associated with gaps in labor force participation. The dimensions of these gender gaps and their associated costs vary considerably across age groups, with the age bracket 36–50 years being responsible for most of the losses.

Several studies explore the differences in men’s and women’s labor market participation rates and wages. Some of these differences have been linked to gender disparities in education attainment and access. The present paper contributes to this literature by analyzing the relationship between the proclivity of a firm to have a female top manager and access to education among women relative to men in the country. The paper combines the literature on women’s careers in management, which has mostly focused on developed countries, with the development literature that has emphasized the importance of access to education. Using firm-level data for 73 developing countries, the analysis finds strong evidence that countries with a higher proportion of female top managers also have higher enrollment rates for women relative to men in primary, secondary, and tertiary education.

This paper addresses the issue of boys' well-documented underperformance and disaffection in MFL at KS4 by comparing the attitude and attainment of boys and girls in two year groups — Year 7 and Year 10. It presents the findings of a quantitative study conducted in a comprehensive school, which explores and compares the perceptions and attitudes of these two distinct cohorts, and compares their attainment in French. The objective is to gain an understanding of when marked differences between boys and girls emerge, and how these evolve according to their age and their experience of language learning. The data suggest that boys' underachievement and disaffection in MFL are not located, as might have been thought, exclusively in KS4, but start for many as early as their first term of French in Year 7 and tend to grow with age. The findings are discussed in the context of the recent Green Paper proposals to make MFL optional at KS4 (2002).

Previous research has shown that people with higher cognitive skills (mental abilities) and socioemotional skills (behaviors and personality) get better labor market outcomes. It is unclear, however, if this conclusion applies to low- and middle-income countries, given that existing literature builds on studies that are dominantly about highincome countries. In this paper, we explore how cognitive and socioemotional skills of adults, ages 15–64, relate to their labor market outcomes in the context of Colombia. Controlling for a range of confounding factors in a crosssectional survey, we do find that adults with higher skills also have better outcomes, while cognitive and socioemotional skills correlate with different ones and seemingly through different channels. Adults with higher cognitive skills have better jobs (with higher earnings, more formal, and highskilled) and are more likely to complete tertiary education. Socioemotional skills correlate more modestly with having a better job but more strongly with labor market participation and tertiary-education completion. Results suggest that adults with both cognitive and socioemotional skills tend to do better in the labor market and that policies boosting the development of both types may be beneficial in Colombia.

This paper examines the impact of labor migration from a welfare and social development perspective. Rather than focusing on regulatory and legal aspects determining migration, this note centers on the impacts of migration on the domestic welfare of households in the Kyrgyz Republic. The profiling of labor migration and identification of knowledge gaps are used to inform the development of strategies for more effective and sustainable welfare impacts from labor migration and remittances.

In Turkey, female employment and education are still relatively low, while fertility levels are high compared with other European countries. However, Turkey stands just at the edge of an important social transition. Increasing female education and employment come along with important decreases in fertility. By mobilizing census and survey data, this paper finds that fertility decreases are mainly caused by fewer transitions to a third birth. Graduate women participating in the formal labor market are most at risk of deciding against child arrival in comparison with inactive or unemployed women. The third rank is particularly concerned, as women’s income contribution seems to be crucial for many families that already have two children, and the arrival of a third child risks reducing or stopping women’s working activities in the absence of institutional childcare support. Policies enabling women to combine work and family life, which have been proven effective in other European countries, emerge as useful to avoid a further fertility decline below replacement level in Turkey.

Women situation in the MENA Region countries, have long lived under difficult economic and social conditions, have the worst gender equality rankings according to the Global Gender Gap Index 2017[1]. (The Global Gender Gap report is an annual insight report that is carried out by the World Economic Forum. This tool shows vital gender-based indicators to determine the performance of each of the selected 144 countries.) Some of these indicators are:i) economic participation and opportunity, ii) health and educational attainment, iii) political empowerment, vi) workforce, v) skill sets, and vi) educational degrees. [1]http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2017.pdf

A randomized control trial was conducted to study whether providing 10th grade students with information about the returns to upper secondary and tertiary education, and a source of financial aid for tertiary education, can contribute to improve student performance. The study finds that the intervention had no effects on the probability of taking a 12th grade national standardized exam three years after, a proxy for on-time high school completion, but a positive and significant impact on learning outcomes and self-reported measures of effort. The effects are larger for girls and students from households with a relatively high income. These findings are consistent with a simple model where time discount determines the increase in effort and only students with adequate initial conditions are able to translate increased effort into better outcomes.

This study examines the effects of the extension of compulsory schooling from 5 to 8 years in Turkey in 1997—which involved substantial investment in school infrastructure—on schooling outcomes and, in particular, on the equality of these outcomes between men and women, and urban and rural residents using the Turkish Demographic and Health Surveys. This policy is peculiar because it also changes the sheepskin effects (signaling effects) of schooling, through its redefinition of the schooling tiers. The policy is also interesting due to its large spillover effects on post-compulsory schooling as well as its remarkable overall effect; for instance, we find that the completed years of schooling by age 17 increases by 1.5 years for rural women. The policy equalizes the educational attainment of urban and rural children substantially. The urban-rural gap in the completed years of schooling at age 17 falls by 0.5 years for men and by 0.7 to 0.8 years for women. However, there is no evidence of a narrowing gender gap with the policy. On the contrary, the gender gap in urban areas in post-compulsory schooling widens.

This paper explores the gender gap in time allocation in European countries, offering a comparison of the 2000s and the 2010s, along with an explanation of the documented gender gaps, based on social norms and institutional factors. The results show that the gender gap in both paid and unpaid work has decreased in most countries, but with a significant level of cross-country heterogeneity in the size of the gender gaps. More traditional social norms are related to greater gender inequalities in paid and unpaid work, while countries with better family-friendly policies and a greater representation of women in politics and in the labour market exhibit smaller gender inequalities. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of gender gaps in Europe, and attempts to monitor the progress towards the elimination of gender inequalities. Despite that some degree of gender convergence in paid and unpaid work has taken place, there remain inequalities in the distribution of labour in European countries, and possible solutions may be related to social norms and family-friendly policies.

Men and women may be affected differently by the transition from central planning to a market economy and especially by the privatization and restructuring of state-owned enterprises. After briefly reviewing the international evidence on this issue, the author looks at the recent experience of Vietnam and the prospects of its new reform program. During the massive downsizing in Vietnam in the early 1990s, many more women than men were laid off. Women withdrew from the labor force in larger numbers than men after separation, but the difference nearly vanished after a year. Economic reforms were associated with a considerable decline in the gender gap in earnings, both in the state sector and outside it. Women are less likely to be retrenched in large numbers in the downsizing in the early part of this decade. Labor redundancies are concentrated in male-dominated sectors, such as mining, transport, and construction; redundancies are smaller in female-dominated sectors, such as footwear, textiles, and garments. Moreover, temporary and short-term contracts are more prevalent in female-dominated sectors, suggesting demand for women's work. Assistance programs for redundant workers have potential gender biases. The authors shows that separation packages defined as a multiple of earnings favor men more, while lump-sum packages favor women more. Packages based on seniority are roughly gender neutral, but require a substantially higher expenditure to reach the same acceptance rate as the other two.

Remote working as well as expanding use of technology and the internet by companies has caused a need for increased network management and maintenance. Traditional management of networks uses a hub and spoke model non-automated version of Domain Name System, Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, and IP Address Management, collectively known as DDI, as a management system. For large companies that are growing at increased rates, this traditional approach has become inefficient and increasingly more difficult. Small and medium sized companies do not have the resources or employee expertise to properly implement and manage an on-premise DDI system themselves. For any type of enterprise that has DDI management product, using a cloud-managed solution allows the resources to be centrally administered and enterprises can deploy exactly what they need when and where they want. Migrating an enterprise network DDI management system to a cloud-based platform can help a company realize the benefits of increased automation, security, scalability, and usability. However, properly completing the migration can be tedious and time-consuming, and requires an experienced network engineer. Since cloud-based migration is only completed once, companies of all sizes opt to hire a professional network engineer as a consultant to gather all the details of the network and the data needed to successfully migrate to the cloud-based system. During the migration process, companies often face communication challenges with the hired consultant. The technical portion of this paper describes the design of a project management tool for cloud network migration to be used as an interface between the enterprise and consulting network engineer. Its design was based upon an extensive evaluation of information and functional requirements, and the establishment of the user flow. The design of the user interfaces implements three novel features: a task-based structure that centralizes resources, a graphical map for evaluating the status of dependent tasks, and embedded learning resources for furthering knowledge of networking. In this way, the design of the interface seeks to effectively bridge gaps in communication between enterprises and network engineers. As seen with the expansion of DDI management, the mobile internet has become increasingly global in its accessibility and affordability. The socio-technical portion of this paper explores how the expansion of the mobile internet has unequally benefitted males in low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs), specifically rural Bangladesh. In rural Bangladesh, the ability of women to access the internet, as well as maintain their personal privacy and safety, is significantly more difficult than their male counterparts. As a historically patriarchal and Muslim country, Bangladesh’s social norms have led to gender inequality throughout its communities. Sociocultural norms have led to men exercising near-exclusive control of a family's property, including phones, computers, and any other technology in the household. Coupled with the patriarchal control men exert over women in these communities, access to technology and the mobile internet by women in rural Bangladesh, without the permission of a male, has remained nearly impossible. I am exploring the current state of patriarchal norms in rural Bangladesh and how they impact the state of internet access, privacy, and safety for women in those communities. Before providing recommendations that address the challenges posed by the prevailing sociocultural characteristics in rural Bangladesh, an understanding of the region's existing gender gap in internet accessibility is required. Part of this understanding is identifying the network of relevant actors within rural Bangladesh and the manner through which their interactions inhibit women's access to the mobile internet. The actors include daughters, wives, husbands, mothers-in-law, and women whose marriages have ended by widowing or divorce. I then evaluate women’s mobile internet use in rural Bangladesh in light of the lens of the local actors and the effect that the network of these actors has had in leading to the mobile internet gender gap. The idea of a feminist rebellion and changing the social structure of rural Bangladesh is inherently a Western ideological fixture, and not something the women in Bangladesh desire. The societal burdens I discuss that these women endure do not have a simple fix that providing technology will solve. However, the goal of this paper is to bring forward details of the relationships between actors in rural Bangladesh to highlight how choices made and the structure of the relationships impact the mobile internet gender gap. Overall the importance of closing the mobile internet gender gap in rural Bangladesh, as well as across the world, continues to grow as the opportunities and resources that come with the internet continue to expand.

Female labor force participation rates in urban India between 1987 and 2011 are surprisingly low and have stagnated since the late 1980s. Despite rising growth, fertility decline, and rising wages and education levels, married women's labor force participation hovered around 18 percent. Analysis of five large cross-sectional micro surveys shows that a combination of supply and demand effects have contributed to this stagnation. The main supply side factors are rising household incomes and husband's education as well as the falling selectivity of highly educated women. On the demand side, the sectors that draw in female workers have expanded least, so that changes in the sectoral structure of employment alone would have actually led to declining participation rates.

The topic of female leadership has been controversial in the last two decades due to globalization and the creation of a new leadership paradigm, in which leaders exert higher levels of influence over various groups of individuals over whom they no longer have official power. Men and women are equally capable of leading; gender discrimination must be avoided if leadership is to be effective. A leader must be creative, demonstrate love and compassion for their subordinates, and develop self-control without giving in to pressure from others. This paper is based on an examination of how female leadership has changed over the past 20 years in European nations. The purpose of the research, titled “Study on the Evolution of Female Leadership in Europe”, is to understand how female leadership has changed over time in European countries. As analyzing female leadership is a contemporary issue, I made the decision to carry out this study and for this research I choose to do a statistical analysis of the data obtained from Eurostat regarding the percentage of women occupying a senior management position in the period 2003-2023. In order to analyze the evolution of female leadership in European countries, I performed an analysis in structure and dynamics, using Microsoft Excel. Initially I centralized and systematized the collected data, then I calculated the statistical indicators and I interpreted the results obtained. I hope that everyone who is interested in this topic will find this paper valuable, especially PhD students and leaders who want to learn more about it.

This paper explores the representation of the history of women in engineering as it appears on the online encyclopaedia, Wikipedia. Using biography pages on women engineers for a high-level quantitative overview, and the ‘History of women in engineering’ page as a specific example for qualitative examination, this research highlights inequalities in how women engineers are represented compared with men engineers. There are significantly fewer Wikipedia biography articles on women engineers compared with men engineers, and those articles are far less central and findable, with fewer incoming links. The article page on the ‘History of women in engineering’ is of poor quality and is flagged as such to readers. Here, the under-representation of women engineers on Wikipedia is set in the specific context of Wikipedia. The context of societal differences beyond the internet is also explored. The paper concludes by discussing practical attempts to redress the imbalance, and challenges to consider in planning future efforts.

People with disabilities (PwDs) face various constraints connected to their participation in tourism activities. This topic has become of greater academic interest in recent years, however, the study of gender issues in this context is still marginal. The present paper seeks to analyze gender differences in PwDs’ propensity to travel, explicitly examining constraints that may limit social inclusion in tourism activities. The empirical analysis is focused on sample data of the Italian population of PwDs gathered through an online questionnaire administered between April and July 2020. The findings reveal gender differences in PwDs travel participation, underlining matters related to constraints “impose,” by society as a whole. The paper discusses the implications of breaking down barriers and provides insights into the tourism industry so as to ensure accessibility, accurate information, and inclusivity.

The aim of the paper is to determine whether there is a gender gap in bank credit access among male and female entrepreneurs. In addition, the paper also investigates the differences between male and female entrepreneurs when obtaining a loan to start a business. The study is based on qualitative preliminary research among small entrepreneurs in Croatia, who requested a bank loan, regardless of whether it was rejected or approved. The results show that there is no gender gap in bank credit access. In addition, the results did not observe any differences between male and female entrepreneurs in terms of loan conditions. The problem of banks' aversion to risk, and thus to the financing of the small firms in Croatia, has been replaced by the role of the Croatian bank for reconstruction and development (HBOR). The results confirm that the model of cooperation between HBOR and commercial banks strongly encourages lending to female entrepreneurs. Finally, results show that female entrepreneurs respond to and engage in different support and educational programs, compared to their male counterparts.

Compared to their male peers, female entrepreneurs tend to face greater obstacles in raising venture funding from business angels, venture capitalists, and financial institutions. In this paper, we investigate whether this gender gap also exists in equity crowdfunding. Based on data from the German equity crowdfunding market, we find that ventures with and without female managing directors are equally successful in raising capital when launching their first equity crowdfunding campaign. In contrast, the former are significantly less successful than their peers in seasoned equity crowdfunding campaigns, and this disparity cannot be fully explained by differences in other venture-related or entrepreneur-related characteristics. However, we also find that the gender gap in seasoned offerings narrows if female entrepreneurs set more ambitious funding thresholds. Overall, our results indicate that pitching their equity crowdfunding campaigns in a more promotion-oriented way is a sensible strategy for female entrepreneurs to improve funding success. Equity crowdfunding enables female entrepreneurs to narrow the “gender gap” in venture financing. In this paper, we investigate whether the entrepreneurs’ gender affects how successful they are in attracting capital in the German equity crowdfunding market. Our results indicate that the gender of a firm’s managing director does not affect the funding outcome in initial equity crowdfunding campaigns. In seasoned equity crowdfunding offerings, though, we identify a gender gap in the sense that ventures with female managing directors are significantly less successful in raising capital from crowd investors than ventures solely led by men. However, this gender gap in seasoned offerings narrows for bolder campaign pitches. Hence, setting a higher funding threshold seems to be a simple and straightforward strategy for female entrepreneurs to increase the odds of reaching their funding targets.

Despite the cardinal role Physics play in human and National development, it is plagued by underrepresentation of females in the classrooms as students and also as teachers or lecturers. In physics classes in secondary schools and higher institutions, female students are not fairly represented. This in turn is affecting the number of female physics teachers as well as the number of female physics lecturers. Low representation of females in physics is influenced by some social, cultural, biological and environmental factors. The problem seems to be more socially related. This paper presents a theoretical review of underrepresentation of female gender in physics in the areas of teaching methods, classroom arrangement and learning materials. The paper also discussed how gender-responsive pedagogy relating to women’s interest, persistence, and achievement in physics could change the narrative of low female enrolment in physics classes. Practical suggestions were made on how physics pedagogy could be made more gender-responsive with the aim of retaining more women in Physics. Among the recommendations is that there should be more female physics role models to female students who they can emulate and relate with freely.

This paper examines how gender equality has evolved in Sudan during the last decade. The analysis comprises various dimensions including the accumulation of endowment in all its forms (human capital and physical capital), access to economic opportunities, access to services (water, sanitation, and electricity), and voice/representation to make decision at all levels. Key findings of the paper are the following. Sudanese women live in poorer than Sudanese men during key productive and reproductive years and appear to suffer greater poverty-related impacts of childcare and divorce. In education, gender gaps are shrinking as the proportion of girls attending primary school and the proportion of boys attending secondary school both continue to increase. Sudan’s maternal mortality ratio declined between 2004 and 2014, supported by an improvement in access to reproductive care services. Time spent in collecting water is a burden to both genders, with no significant difference between females and males. A higher proportion of female-headed households are in the lowest asset index quintile compared to male-headed households, while a lower share of female-headed households are in the highest asset index quintile than male-headed households. Male-headed households have better access to water, sanitation, and hygiene services and electricity. Sudan has a large gender gap in labor force participation that contrasts starkly to the average for the Sub-Saharan African region. Female household heads are more likely to be food insecure and experience higher exposure to shocks, compared to male heads. The paper includes a discussion on the potential impact of COVID-19 on gender inequality, as well as possible policy options to reduce gender inequality in Sudan.

IntroductionI investigated the authorship gender gap in research on political psychology.MethodsThe material comprises 1,166 articles published in the field’s flagship journal Political Psychology between 1997 and 2021. These were rated for author gender, methodology, purpose, and topic.ResultsWomen were underrepresented as authors (37.1% women), single authors (33.5% women), and lead authors (35.1% women). There were disproportionately many women lead authors in papers employing interviews or qualitative methodology, and in research with an applied purpose (these were all less cited). In contrast, men were overrepresented as authors of papers employing quantitative methods. Regarding topics, women were overrepresented as authors on Gender, Identity, Culture and Language, and Religion, and men were overrepresented as authors on Neuroscience and Evolutionary Psychology.DiscussionThe (denigrated) methods, purposes, and topics of women doing research on politics correspond to the (denigrated) “feminine style” of women doing politics grounding knowledge in the concrete, lived reality of others; listening and giving voice to marginalized groups’ subjective experiences; and yielding power to get things done for others.

We analyse gender gaps in published works on economics in Uruguay. First of all, we describe the evolution of the professional context and female participation in the discipline. We then provide an empirical analysis of the research output based on two databases: one containing working papers and technical documents and the other including articles published in journals. The main results are: a) men produce more published articles than women but there is no gender gap in working papers; b) women and men are unevenly represented throughout different fields; c) collaboration with non-local authors is more likely among men than women; d) non-local co-authorship is strongly associated with the gender gap in journal articles production. JEL: J16, J44, I23, O30. RESUMEN Este artículo analiza las brechas de género en la producción escrita en Economía en Uruguay. Por un lado, se describe el contexto profesional y la participación femenina en la disciplina. Además, se analizan los productos de investigación, considerando documentos de trabajo y técnicos, y artículos en revistas. Los resultados principales son: a) los hombres producen más artículos en revistas que las mujeres; no hay brechas en la producción de documentos de trabajo; b) mujeres y hombres se distribuyen de manera diferente entre áreas; c) la colaboración con autores no locales es más probable entre los hombres y d) esa coautoría con autores no locales está asociada con la brecha de género en la producción de artículos. JEL: J16, J44, I23, O30.

Maritime industry is known to be considered a male dominated industry. The aim of this paper is to find out why women are not progressing as fast in the technical maritime industry as men. It is needed to better understand the gender gap that exists in this industry and its sources. In order to reach the objectives, a survey was sent out to women and HR representatives of companies that operate in this industry in Klaipeda, Lithuania. In this study participated 9 companies, which includes 9 HR representatives and 15 women involved in this industry. The findings suggest that women are facing difficulties on reaching higher leadership positions in the technical maritime industry in Lithuania, primary because of the stereotypes that exist and consider this industry a male industry. Moreover, it was found out that HR representatives tend to favor men when it comes to hiring or promoting for certain positions. Women are often given low position jobs and they need to work harder for a long time to prove themselves worthy for a promotion. All the gender stereotypes have influenced women as there are only few women applying for jobs in this industry. As well, it has lowered their confidence since they view themselves as more inferior than men. This paper has its limitations, such as limited time and limited number of participants in the study. For future research it is suggested to do the surveys in person and arrange as well interviews to make sure a bigger number of responses is collected and the study could be generalized., Žinoma, kad jūrų pramonė laikoma vyrams dominuojančia pramone. Šio dokumento tikslas - išsiaiškinti, kodėl techninėje jūrų pramonėje moterys progresuoja ne taip sparčiai kaip vyrai. Būtina geriau suprasti lyčių skirtumus, egzistuojančius šioje pramonės šakoje ir jos šaltiniuose. Siekiant užsibrėžtų tikslų, Klaipėdos Lietuvoje šioje pramonės šakoje veikiančių įmonių moterims ir žmogiškųjų išteklių atstovams buvo išsiųsta apklausa. Šiame tyrime dalyvavo 9 bendrovės, kuriose dirba 9 žmogiškųjų išteklių atstovai ir 15 šioje pramonės šakoje dirbančių moterų. Išvadose teigiama, kad moterys susiduria su sunkumais užimdamos aukštesnes lyderio pozicijas Lietuvos techninės laivybos pramonėje, pirmiausia dėl egzistuojančių stereotipų ir laiko šią pramonę vyriška pramone. Be to, išsiaiškinta, kad žmogiškųjų išteklių atstovai yra linkę teikti pirmenybę vyrams, kai kalbama apie samdymą ar skatinimą užimti tam tikras pareigas. Moterims dažnai suteikiamos žemos pareigos ir jos turi ilgai sunkiai dirbti, kad įrodytų esančios vertos paaukštinimo. Visi lyčių stereotipai turėjo įtakos moterims, nes šioje pramonės šakoje darbo ieško vos kelios moterys. Taip pat tai sumažino jų pasitikėjimą ir jie laiko save prastesniais už vyrus. Šis tyrimas turi trūkumų, pvz., ribotą laiką ir ribotą tyrimo dalyvių skaičių. Būsimiems tyrimams siūloma atlikti apklausas asmeniškai ir organizuoti pokalbius, kad būtų surinkta daugiau atsakymų ir tyrimas galėtų būti apibendrintas.