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Hoofdstuk 7 in: De brede basis van het sociaal werk: grondslagen, methoden en praktijken. Marcel Spierts, Ard Sprinkhuizen, Marc Hoijtink, Ed de Jonge, Lia van Doorn (red.). Bussum: Coutinho, 2023 (2e herz. dr.)

Hoofdstuk 7 in: De brede basis van het sociaal werk: grondslagen, methoden en praktijken. Marcel Spierts, Ard Sprinkhuizen, Marc Hoijtink, Ed de Jonge, Lia van Doorn (red.). Bussum: Coutinho, 2023 (2e herz. dr.)

In deze rapportage bespreken wij de resultaten van een onderzoek naar de effecten van de leeren gezinsondersteuning van Stichting De Katrol. De Katrol biedt leer- en gezinsondersteuning aan kinderen 6 – 9 jaar oud en hun ouders, woonachtig in Rotterdam zuid.

This dissertation focuses on the role of family and social relationships in individuals’ reproductive careers during the fertility decline in Soviet Ukraine from around 1950 to 1975. These three decades after the Second World War signified the end of the First Demographic Transition in Ukraine and other European republics of the Soviet Union, and some even define the period after the 1960s as the start of a latent depopulation in this part of Europe. However, this fertility decline that had already begun to manifest itself in the early 1920s gained speed within only a few generations as those who were born in families of six siblings in the 1920s and 1930s had only two children themselves in the 1950s, the 1960s and the 1970s. Previous research has discussed these demographic changes on a macro-level for the Soviet and post-Soviet periods by typically linking these changes to the processes of modernisation and transformation. However, this singular focus on structural changes ignores the fact that relationships between people also adjust to politico-economic changes according to the social and family values that al- ready exist in society. As a result, old and new social (in)equalities, both outside and within the household, (re-) emerge alongside the politico-economic modernisation, which, in tandem, contribute to the formation of different demographic realities on a micro-level and different fertility trends on a macro-level. In this respect, social relationships should be seen as playing an intermediary role in the interplay between the formation of interpersonal inequalities and the politico- economic reality. Because they surround our everyday lives and choices, social relationships form a coherent social structure that helps us to interpret, to under- stand and to adjust to everyday reality, including state legal regulations, political ideology, and economic crises. The primary aim of this dissertation is to study the effects of family relationships and their

Local institutions and rural development: Evidence from Liberia This thesis focusses on the role of local (informal) institutions for development, based on data from Liberia. I show that dense family networks can be an obstacle for economic decision making, due to strict income sharing obligations that often belong to them. I also demonstrate the importance of local governance quality: corrupt village leaders negatively affect daily investment decisions by villagers. Finally, I evaluate the impact of a rural development project that aims to strengthen food security and social cohesion between villagers. The results indicate that the impact is marginal at most, and local institutions again do play a role. Institutions are difficult to change, as they are rooted in an historical context. However, policy makers could support the emergence of alternative institutions. Either way, a deeper understanding of the far-going impact of local institutions is important: this research contributes to that.

Pas tweeënhalf jaar geleden startten Johan Schilder en zijn gezin met het fokken van blonde d’Aquitaines. Aankoop van goed fokmateriaal, de samenwerking met vriend Henk Spaansen en met andere kenners en vooral enthousiasme en ambitie zorgen voor de eerste keuringssuccessen die smaken naar meer. ‘W gaan alleen voor het allerbeste’, geeft Johan Schilder aan.

In de negentiende eeuw werd in Amsterdam aan de Spaarndammerdijk een nieuwe katholieke begraafplaats gesticht. In 1932 werd Richard Degenkamp beheerder van St. Barbara. Zijn zoon volgde hem in de jaren zestig op en zette recent een halve eeuw anekdotes en ervaringen op papier.

In Grondig wordt in drie afleveringen aandacht besteed aan het onderwerp levensfasebewust personeelsbeleid onder de titel ‘gewoon’ doorwerken. In sommige situaties is ‘gewoon’ namelijk niet altijd gewoon en vergt het van zowel werkgever als werknemer de nodige creativiteit en inspanning om te zoeken naar de juiste samenwerking.

Bij sommige mensen roept de gedachte aan het gezin waarin ze opgroeiden al de sfeer van warmte, welkom en veiligheid op, terwijl bij anderen een associatie met zeer pijnlijke ervaringen ontstaat. Soms ook is er sprake van een mengeling van uiteenlopende gevoelens. Wat onze achtergrond ook is, de invloed van de ouder-kindrelatie doet zich ons hele leven gelden, zowel bewust als onbewust.

Sinds 1 juli 2014 is dankzij de 6de staatshervorming het kinderbijslagstelsel van de zelfstandigen volledig geïntegreerd in dat van de werknemers. De kinderbijslagen werden op die datum immers overgeheveld naar de Gemeenschappen. Dat betekent een verbetering voor de grote meerderheid van de zelfstandige gezinnen. En in het regeerakkoord was overeengekomen om de verschillen tussen de stelsels van de zelfstandigen en de werknemers voorafgaandelijk weg te werken. Hierna overlopen we kort de belangrijkste effecten van die gelijkschakeling.

Of je nu de droom van je boer volgt of gezamenlijk kiest voor een toekomst in het buitenland: de keuze voor emigratie draait niet alleen om lage grondprijzen, meer rendement en groeikansen. ‘Emigratie slaagt alleen als het hele gezin erachter staat’, zegt emigratiebegeleider Gwenda van Veldhuizen van Interfarms. ‘Zorg dat je als vrouw ook een uitdaging in het nieuwe land krijgt’, adviseert emigratiepsycholoog Saskia Zimmermann.

editors of the series Gøsta Esping-Andersen, University of Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain Anton Hemerijck, the Netherlands Scientific Council for Government Policy (Wetenschappelijke Raad voor het Regeringsbeleid - wrr) Kees van Kersbergen, Free University Amsterdam, the Netherlands Kimberly Morgan, George Washington University, Washington, USA Romke van der Veen, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, the Netherlands Jelle Visser, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands

Voor de één is het ondertekenen van het maatschapscontract niks bijzonders, voor de ander is het een beslissing waar heel bewus over nagedacht is. En dan begint het pas, het hele proces van de bedrijfsovername. Samenwerken met je ouders, gesprekken voeren over de overname, broers en zussen er bij betrekken. Hoe pak je dat aan? Drie NJAK-leden over bedrijfsovername

Het is slecht gesteld met de westerse eetgewoonten. Ze zouden niet alleen ongezond zijn, maar ook getuigen van een belangrijke degeneratie. Maaltijden lijken steeds vaker te vervagen tot de hele dag door "grazen". Eten onttrekt zich in toenemende mate aan elke vorm van regels en regelmaat en vooral gezinnen van de jongere generatie zouden steeds minder belang hechten aan een regelmatig maaltijdpatroon. In dit artikel wordt nagegaan of dit klopt.

Als gevolg van grootschalige arbeidsmigratie naar het Westen ondergingen steden in Ecuador aan het eind van de 20e eeuw snelle fysieke en sociale veranderingen. Families uit lagere sociale klassen wisten hun woonsituatie te verbeteren dankzij het geld van gemigreerde familieleden. Om de sociale stijging aan de buitenwereld te tonen, kozen zij voor opzichtige woningarchitectuur

De stadse socioloog prof. Kees de Hoog houdt zich vanuit Wageningen bezig met on-Wageningse thema's. Hij schrijft over kwetsbare vrijgezelle mannen, hedonistische kinderlozen en de invloed van religie op de partnerkeuze. Donderdag 18 oktober 2007 sprak hij zijn afscheidsrede uit als hoogleraar Gezinssociologie. Officieel is hij nu met pensioen, al zal hij nog zeker een jaar doorwerken

Dit artikel bespreekt een regioneel onderdeel van het DIALOG-project: Het Vlaamse Delphi-onderzoek. Het Centrum voor Bevolkings- en Gezinsstudie (CBGS) realiseerde de studie in de tweede helft van 2003 en begin 2004. Vijftien Vlaamse experts stipten hierin doelstellingen aan om Vlaanderen soepel naar het jaar 2030 te laveren. Tevens wordt het Vlaamse beleid inzake zorg, gezin en gelijke kansen onder de loep genomen. Door de vele raakvlakken met werkgelegenheid passeert ook het Vlaamse werkgelegenheidsbeleid (gedeeltelijk) de revue

Leaving the parental home is one of the most common events in the life course of individuals. It is a normal and natural thing to happen to virtually everyone at some time. However, despite the generality of the event, the transition is not the same for all. Furthermore, the generality of the event says nothing about changes in the patterns in home-leaving behaviour over time. During the past several decades, interesting shifts in the timing and arrangements of the transition have occurred. The question, central to this study, runs: What are the factors that influence the transition from living at home to living independently?In the literature, there are mainly two perspectives dominating theoretical thinking about the determinants affecting departure from the parental home: an economic and a cultural one. First, in many previous demographic and economic studies, the search for an explanation of the changes in leaving home focused on the impact of the situational context on the individual's behaviour, i.e. the financial situation and the situation on the housing market, which constitute the young adult's opportunity structure. A second research tradition that has addressed the event of leaving home typically emphasises the normative context and the role of social norms which are believed to regulate the timing and arrangement of important life course transitions. This study aimed to determine more precisely the relative impact of each of these two factors. Furthermore, this study tried to find out whether, beside economic, housing and normative factors, additional aspects play a role in the decision to leave home, thus providing a more complete picture of the variety of factors that should be taken into account. An explorative analysis of written material collected among 300 students provided the necessary data to discover young adults' additional considerations in the matter of leaving home. These considerations appeared to deal with more practical and social-emoti

De gevolgen van het verlies van het landbouwbedrijf voor het gezin

Aan de hand van resultaten van een project in West Java dat de ondersteuning van inkomensgenererende activiteiten van vrouwen tot doel had, komt aan de orde wat economische activiteit en inkomen voor vrouwen en hun huishoudens betekenen en welke strategische rol krediet vervult

IN ONTWIKKELDE MARKTECONOMIEEN wordt de landbouw hoofdzakelijk beoefend op relatief kleine gezinsbedrijven. Arbeids- en bezitsverhoudingen berusten op verwantschaps- en gezinsbanden. De externe produktieverhoudingen, daarentegen, worden gekenmerkt door nauwe bindingen met markten. Deze tegenstelling vormt het uitgangspunt van een studie, die gericht is op de vraag wat de consequenties hiervan zijn voor het handelen en denken van boerenfamilies. Deze thematiek wordt vanuit een aantal theoretische en empirische invalshoeken belicht.Op de eerste plaats wordt een theoretische verhandeling gewijd aan de verhouding tussen verwantschap en economie. Dit mondt uit in een pleidooi om het gezinsbedrijf te beschouwen als een sociaal-cultureel systeem, waarbinnen actoren vanuit een specifieke culturele achtergrond vorm geven aan hun sociale verhoudingen en handelen. De politiek-economische context is slechts van invloed in combinatie met culturele factoren. Het karakter van op verwantschap gebaseerde produktieverhoudingen wordt voorts geanalyseerd via verervingspatronen. Transacties binnen de groep van verwanten worden hoofdzakelijk gestructureerd door het lokale statussysteem en verwantschapsopvattingen. Centraal staat de vraag in hoeverre deze traditionele noties veranderen onder druk van commercialisering en modernisering.Aan het eind van de negentiende eeuw werd in Nederland veel aandacht besteed aan de vererving van grondbezit. Men verwachtte destijds dat het erfrecht op den duur tot de ondergang van de boerenstand zou leiden. Voor het eerst werd toen gewezen op de weerbarstigheid van lokale gewoonten, die ondanks een uniforme wetgeving en toenemende commercialisering niet van wijken wisten. Vooral de lokale gewoonten in het Oosten van Nederland stonden in de belangstelling. Na de Tweede Wereldoorlog veranderde de aard van het debat rondom de generatiewisseling. Meer aandacht ging uit naar de economische levensvatbaarheid, terwijl de rol van familie en verwantschapsrelaties

Het kabinet wil het mogelijk maken dat huishoudens een rekening krijgen voor waterverbruik, rioolrechten en zuiveringsheffing. De hoogte van die rekening moet geheel afhankelijk zijn van de hoeveelheid water die het huishouden verbruikt. De achterliggende gedachte hierbij is dat dit mensen ertoe zal aanzetten zuiniger met water om te springen. Hoe prijsgevoelig is het huishoudelijk waterverbruik?

This study deals with the development of marriage, marital dissolution, and remarriage in the Netherlands in the period 1815-1930. It consists of two parts, the first dealing with first marriages, the second with marital dissolution and remarriage.Although this study is a demographic one, it clearly distinguishes itself from previous demographic studies. This relates not only to the fact that earlier studies were based mainly or solely on published, statistical data, and could, as a consequence, give only a vague and incomplete picture of the social and regional variation in marriage patterns. It also has to do with the fact that these studies seldom paid attention to the cultural ideas which regulated the entry into and the dissolution of marriage and that they neglected marital dissolution and remarriage, which were important phenomena during most of the period. These shortcomings are discussed in Chapter I and the main principles and topics of our research are introduced.Chapter II analyzes the overall trends in age at first marriage and marriage frequency in the Netherlands during the 19th and 20th century. In this period, the marriage frequency clearly increased while age at first marriage decreased, particularly between 1860 and the end of the 19th century.Chapter III pays attention to the cultural ideas that guided the marriage decisions of 19th century men and women. It is based on an extensive analysis of 19th and 20th century statistical, sociological, historical, legal, economic, and ethnographic sources. Inasmuch as these opinions were recorded, they were fairly biased with respect to the origin of those involved; in the majority of cases this was males from higher social classes. From this analysis it appeared that, during the period studied, there were definite ideas on the age at which males and females ought to get married. Too 'early' marriages were considered detrimental to the health of the husband, wife, and children, while too 'late' marriages w

Bespreking van een onderzoek naar de economische omstandigheden en het arbeidsmarktgedrag van langdurig werklozen in Friesland

This study of farm family households in the east of The Netherlands is based on a field survey carried out in spring 1984. Rapid changes in the structure and processes of agriculture in the Netherlands since the 1950's and radical change in the family, notably with relation to sex roles, have caused increasing political and academic concern for the future and the viability of family farming. This has also led to women's position in agriculture being subjected to much discussion and increasing scholarly interest. These, the most important motives for initiating this study, are outlined in the first chapter, together with the most important post-war changes in Dutch agriculture. This chapter also includes a review of the literature on the changing forms and functions of family and marriage and of women's position in family and society and it ends by discussing the implications of these changes for farm families and farm women.The second chapter presents a detailed description of the study. It includes a definition of the research problem, a description of its theoretical basis, concepts and hypotheses, an explanation of the design of the study and finally a description of the construction of the questionnaires and the sampling and data collection methods.Farm family households are social institutions composed of complex networks of interwoven and mutually dependent roles. The family and the farm enterprise are thus seen as interdependent social subsystems. This view of the farm family household yields the first main theme of this study: how family and farm are intertwined. The way in which this interconnectedness is shaped, its specific form, is subject to change because it is linked to the particular historical, social and cultural environment in which it is situated.This view of the farm family household leads on to an elaboration of the second main theme of this study: the sexual division of labour and decisions. The way in which husband and wife divide or share la

This thesis has been inspired by the international trend reports of Reuben Hill and John Mogey on the output of family sociology. Originally the author aimed at the answering of the following fourfold problem: the development of the interest in the study of marriage and the family in the Netherlands; the theoreticcal, thematic and methodological developments of Dutch family research; the impact of theoretical and methodological insights developed abroad upon Dutch family studies; the extent to which Dutch family research meets the ideal of the survey model emphasized by both Hill and Mogey. Influenced by the identity crisis of sociology that arose in the late sixties, the author widened the scope of his study. To the problem as stated above he added the question about the relation between the development of family research per se and the societal evolution (mainly the change in values and norms).After the introductory part of the book five chapters follow, the first four -mainly dealing with the development of family sociology beyond the Dutch boundaries. Chapter 1 gives an impression of the theories on marriage and the family that were developed during the 19th century. The presented material in this chapter makes clear that the political and the scientific approach to problems in the field of marriage and the family are narrowly intertwined. The second chapter deals with the sociology of marriage and the family during the period 1900-1940. This chapter pais special attention to the period 1918-1940. In this period the basis is laid for the theoretical and methodological developments that had a predominant influence on family research after the Second World War.The third chapter deals with the thematic and methodological aspects of family research during the period 1945-1968. As this chapter is mainly based on the data from the trend reports of Hill and Mogey the emphasis is laid on a comparison between family research in the U.S.A. and the activities in this field

This study comprises the results of two investigations, the second of which was carried out more than a decade after the first. The initial project was done in 1960. The motive for starting it at the time were the strains on family life, caused by the profound economic and social changes taking place in steadily opening-up rural areas. The effect on the family brought about by these phenomena was well perceived by policy and extension agencies working on behalf of the welfare of the rural population. They thought it necessary to gain a thorough insight into the nature of the problems the rural family, both agrarian and non-agrarian, was facing.Within the 'Union International des Organismes Familiauz' this consideration has led to the establishment of a special 'Working Group for the Rural Family'. In the working groups' opinion the relation or contrast between the rural and the urban domain was of primary importance in studying the family situation in the country. Particularly, it was a basic question for this working group whether or not there existed specific welfare problems for the rural family as a result of essential differences in value-orientation and/or conditions of life.It was this question which the first investigation tried to answer as far as the Nederlands was concerned. Because of its implications for policy making this study was supported by the Dutch Ministry of Social Work.It was hypothesized that there existed no rural nuclear family as such; in other words, that this family was characterized neither by a different set of values nor by circumstances of a special nature. Family life does not stand completely apart from society, but it always takes place within a specific, social framework. Following changes in the general social constellation, the shape of family life is also transformed. Hence it was stated that together with the transition from an agriculture and craft ruled society to the contemporary urban-industrial one, a traditional family

To accomplish a financial policy is an event with which every young couple has to deal. In addition to which problems can occur that cannot be resolved in everyday customs and habits. Regarding the latter if that is the meaning of one or both of the married couple, in that case you can say that there is a financial crisis.Via an inquiry conducted with 93 young married couples who were representative of all the young married couples in the Netherlands municipal borough of Ede (chapter 2), it was to investigate which of the young couples had experienced a financial crisis. From these young married couples it appeared that a total of 32 were experiencing a financial crisis.Using Reuben Hill's work as a model there are at least three different variables at work to determine whether a given event becomes a crisis for any given family (chapter 1):1. the hardships of the situation or event itself,2. the resources of the family;3. the definition the family makes of the event.The hardships of the situation were widely varied for different young married couples (chapter 3). Hardships identified were as follows:- a low salary rate;- a marriage of necessity;- an unplanned pregnancy during the first year of marriage;- not saved sufficient money or very little before the marriage;- usage of hire-purchase or personal loan.Apart from the inquiry of the financial resources we spent a lot of time on systematic study of the more basic resources. Family integration is generally seen as such a basic resource. Family integration is the stability of a family in practising of its functions and the security which it obtains from it. In this investigation it was tried to discern in what degree the family integration determines the invulnerableness of young married couples for financial tension. Indeed it proved that a married couple that was notably less integrated, was relatively often in financial difficulties.An important addition to the classification of family integration was achieved t

Ingegaan wordt op een aantal voor huishoudens direkt relevante zaken uit de Miljoenennota 1982 en de begeleidende Macro Economische Verkenningen 1982 (MEV1982) van het Centraal Plan Bureau, en de gevolgen van die zaken voor de huishouding in 1982

This report investigates future trends in marriage and the family. The project was started because of the revolutionary changes in marriage and family life in the Netherlands since about 1965 (Chapter 1). A brief review of the history of marriage and the family shows that the characteristics and functions of this institution have changed considerably with time. A search of the scientific literature on the future of marriage and the family shows a need for well founded research on future trends in marriage and the family as a whole (Chapter 2). Experts were consulted to study the future of marriage and the family, and results were processed by the Delphi method, developed in research on the future.Chapter 4 discusses the merits and shortcomings of research on the future in general, specially by the Delphi method.Research was concentrated on the following questions: (Chapter 3)1. What changes did the selected experts expect in marriage and the family in the next fifteen years? (to about 1990)2. What factors influenced to the experts' opinion the changes in marriage and the family?3. What changes did the experts want in marriage and the family in the next fifteen years?4. To what extent did the experts' field of expertise and personal values in fluence their expectations and desires for changes?The concept of expert was defined widely in this research, namely persons who are professionally strongly involved in marriage and the family in view of their publications, their field of activity or other things. The experts were consulted in two rounds, each time by a mailed questionnaire. The purpose of the second round was to clarify and deepen the results from the first round. Respondents in the first round were 155 and in the second 126 persons from four sectors of society and from eleven scientific disciplines. Respondents from the four sectors of society were scientists, field workers, policy makers and opinion formers. The data were collected in the period from the end

The Netherlands National Fertility Survey, conducted in 1969, was the first national fertility survey in the Netherlands. Its findings led to the conclusion that conventional social-demographic variables were no longer of very much significance in accounting for differences in fertility and that it was necessary to look for socialpsychological factors to account for differential fertility (Moors, 1974). A literature study was then carried oud with the aim of finding a research instrument which would be able to help identify social-psychological factors which would account for differences in fertility behaviour (Niphuis-Nell, 1974). The number of alternatives was very limited and the choice fell on a set of questions out of an as yet experimental questionnaire which had been used by James T. Fawcett in Hawaii (United States) in preparing the first phase of the international Value of Children project. The set of questions which we took over contained two open-ended questions on the advantages and disadvantages of having children as compared with not having children, nine scales based on Likert items and relating principally to the perceived satisfactions and costs of having children, and a number of structured questions about the reasons why people did or did not want (more) children.Using the chosen set of questions, a pilot study was carried out in 1974 amongst 100 married women aged 35 or below. Chapter 2 contains a report of this pilot study, concentrating on the choice of instrument and construction of the scales. While the scales are to a large extent comparable with those from the Value of Children project, they are not in fact entirely comparable because a number of new items was added and the items were not grouped in exactly the same way. When various things had been taken into account, the result was five scales which measure various satisfactions from having children: continuity and security, motherhood satisfactions, social identity, happiness and affecti

Rede Wageningen, 25 september 1980

This research on voluntarily childless married women was carried out by the direction of the "Netionaal Programma Demografisch Onderzoek (NPDO) (National Program for Demographic Research). To all appearances, the percentage of voluntarily childless married couples is increasing in various western countries, including the Netherlands. This makes this relatively new topic of research extra interesting.The problem-definition of the research was as follows:- Which factors influence the choice for voluntary childlessness? How does the decision-making process around this choice take place?- What role does women's emancipation play?- As the number of women who do not conform with traditional sex-roles increases, will the number of voluntarily childless women also increase?In the research design I tried to link the findings of research abroad (Bram, 1974; Veevers, 1973b) and my own observations on the role of women in society with the Fishbein theoretical model on behavioral intention (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975).The sample was drawn from the 90,000 inhabitants of a city in the western part of the country. All the women who had been married for at least 3 years, were under age 35 and who had no children were sampled (about 1200). A control group of 100 mothers with the same characteristics, but with one child no more than 2 years old, was also drawn from this population. These preliminary subjects received a letter of introduction and a small screening questionnaire. As a result of these questionnaires four groups of women were selected (N=170). Because of the non-normal distribution of the voluntarily childless in the general population, the childless sample was supplemented by subjects chosen in a purposive manner. A lengthy (2-4 hours) personal interview was conducted with open-ended and pre-coded questions. (Material collected in 1978). A total of 158 of the respondents was used in the final analysis, the four groups are:1- Voluntary childless WC): 65 women who ware sure th

Aan de hand van een enquete wordt de invloed van het huishoudelijk handelen op gebruik en konsumptie van spinazie beschreven, waarna de invloed van de grootte van het huishouden op de opname van nitraat uit spinazie wordt bediskussieerd

In three experiments composting in different types of containers was studied. No differences between the containers were observed. Seedling tests showwed that with up to 50 % compost added to a sandy soil growth was stimulated. In the case of a 100 % compost crop damage occurred. Verschillende typen containers voor het composteren van tuin- en groenteafval voor particulier gebruik werden in dit onderzoek vergeleken. Uit het verloop van de temperatuur en van het zuurstofgehalte van de lucht bleek dat het composteringsproces niet optimaal verliep. De aard van het afval en het kleine volume in verhouding tot het oppervlak kan hierbij een rol gespeeld hebben. De door de fabrikanten opgegeven composteringstermijn is te kort. De compost is een goede meststof in particuliere tuinen

Invloed van technologie op de huishoudelijke arbeid en de gevolgen hiervan voor vrouwen

Onderzoek naar welk deel van de Nederlandse huishoudens gebaseerd is op het standaard gezinsmodel en welk deel op andere leefvormen