Search

Intravenous regional limb perfusion (IVRLP) has been used in the treatment of pododermatitis and distal limb infections, which are significant causes of morbidity in avian species. This intravenous drug administration technique is designed to achieve high drug tissue concentrations while minimizing systemic toxic effects. Amikacin is commonly used for IVRLP in veterinary medicine, but dosing guidelines have not been established for its use in birds. The current study aimed to determine the tissue concentration of amikacin after a single IVRLP administration in healthy, euhydrated leghorn hen chickens ( Gallus gallus domesticus ). Chickens received a single IVRLP dose of 10 mg/kg amikacin and were euthanatized posttreatment at 1 hour (n = 6), 12 hours (n = 6), and 24 hours (n = 6) to assess tissue and synovial fluid concentrations of amikacin in the injected leg. Mean tissue concentrations were highest 1 hour post-IVRLP (synovial fluid = 153.0 µg/mL, metatarsal pad tissue = 26.05 µg/mL) before declining at the 12- and 24-hour time points. This indicates that administration of amikacin via IVRLP can reach minimum inhibitory concentrations of common bacterial isolates in tissues after a single treatment with 10 mg/kg amikacin. Regional limb perfusion every 24 hours is recommended, although the minimum days of treatment may be case dependent and vary based on response to therapy.

Objective: To retrospectively evaluate the clinical use of voriconazole in psittacine patients for the treatment of suspected respiratory fungal infections., Animals: 14 client-owned psittacine birds., Methods: Medical records were searched from 2012 to 2023 for voriconazole use in psittacines. Species, age, clinical signs, physical examination findings, CT reports, bloodwork results, treatment, and outcome were obtained from the records or client follow-up., Results: African grey parrots were the most prevalent species (8/14). Dyspnea (9/14) and abnormal respiratory auscultation (11/14) were the most common examination abnormalities. An initial CT was performed in all cases, and pneumonia (10/14) and air sac disease (9/14) were the most common findings, with 8 cases having both pulmonary and air sac disease. Voriconazole doses ranged from 10 to 21 mg/kg (median, 16 mg/kg), with most cases prescribed as every-12-hour frequency (12/14). Three of 14 (21%) cases died or were euthanized within 24 days of diagnosis. One case was euthanized at 311 days, and 6 cases were lost to follow-up. Four of 14 (29%) cases lived > 12 months from diagnosis. Two of these cases cleared clinical infection after receiving voriconazole at 17 to 18 mg/kg (q 12 h). No adverse effects attributable to voriconazole were reported., Clinical Relevance: Voriconazole can be safely used for the treatment of suspected fungal respiratory infection in psittacines. However, the prognosis for resolution is guarded, and prolonged treatment and repeated diagnostic imaging are necessary in many cases.

A free-ranging Eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) was presented for ulcerated cutaneous masses at the base of both pinnae in July 2021. Diagnosis of cutaneous histiocytosis was achieved by histologic and immunohistochemical examination of one excised mass and supported by spontaneous resolution of the contralateral mass before the squirrel's release., (© Wildlife Disease Association 2024.)

Objective: To characterize the epidemiologic features of rabbits with odontogenic abscesses., Animals: 72 client-owned rabbits., Methods: The medical record database of a veterinary teaching hospital was searched to identify rabbits with odontogenic abscesses characterized by a palpable facial mass and confirmed via CT scan. Data reviewed included age, breed, presenting complaint, abscess location, bacterial culture results, treatment, and outcome., Results: Lop-eared rabbits were the most common breeds affected (20/72 [28%]), and mini lop rabbits were significantly overrepresented. The mandibular quadrants were more frequently affected (65/92 [71%]), and osteomyelitis was a common comorbidity on CT (53/72 [74%]). The most common aerobic and anaerobic isolates were Streptococcus spp (17/40 [43%]) and Fusobacterium spp (10/22 [45%]), respectively. Systemic antibiotic therapy alone was performed in 35 of 62 (56%) treated cases, with documented resolution in 25%. Abscess packing with antibiotic-soaked gauze in conjunction with systemic antibiotic therapy was performed in 20 of 62 (32%) treated cases. Resolution of the odontogenic abscesses with this treatment protocol was documented in 17 of 20 (85%) cases. The number of packing procedures used to obtain resolution of infection was 4 (IQR, 3 to 5)., Clinical Relevance: A combination of the abscess-packing technique, which avoids extensive surgery and extraction of the involved elodont teeth, with systemic antibiotic therapy can be an effective treatment option for rabbits with palpable odontogenic abscesses and can result in a high cure rate comparable to more invasive surgical treatments. Antibiotic treatment alone is not recommended, as it has a low chance of abscess resolution.

Objective: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of hydromorphone administered SC in four-toed hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris)., Animals: 12 healthy adult hedgehogs., Methods: Hedgehogs underwent 2 randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, complete crossover studies. Hind limb withdrawal latencies in response to an acute thermal noxious stimulus were measured to evaluate the antinociceptive efficacy of hydromorphone. Baseline latencies were obtained prior to injection and collected again at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 6 hours following injection. Based on pilot studies, single doses of SC hydromorphone at 0.15 and 0.3 mg/kg were evaluated for efficacy in crossover trials. Safety of single (0.15 and 0.3 mg/kg) and multiple doses of hydromorphone (0.3 mg/kg, SC, q 4 h, for 3 doses) was also assessed. In addition to monitoring behavior during latency measurements, animals were evaluated for overt sedation and daily changes in food intake, body weight, and running wheel activity for 6 days after injection to evaluate for adverse effects., Results: Hydromorphone at 0.15 mg/kg provided antinociception lasting < 4 hours, and 0.3 mg/kg provided antinociception lasting < 6 hours. Hydromorphone produced transient abnormal behaviors at both doses, including vocalization, chewing motions of the jaw, and paw raising. There were no statistically significant differences in body weight or running wheel activity between treatments for single or multiple doses of hydromorphone. Three doses of 0.3 mg/kg hydromorphone (q 4 h) produced a statistically significant decrease (median, -9.7%; range, -64% to 10%) in 6-day total food intake., Clinical Relevance: Subcutaneous hydromorphone (0.15 to 0.3 mg/kg) can be used for short-term antinociception with transient adverse effects in hedgehogs.

Objective: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of SC methadone in four-toed hedgehogs., Animals: 9 to 12 healthy adult four-toed hedgehogs (7 to 9 males and 3 females)., Methods: Hedgehogs underwent 3 randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, complete crossover studies. Hind limb withdrawal latencies in response to an acute thermal noxious stimulus were measured to evaluate the antinociceptive efficacy of methadone. Single doses of SC methadone were evaluated at 0.5 and 1 mg/kg for dose-dependent effects. Additionally, methadone (1.5 mg/kg) was administered at different concentrations to assess the effect of injection volume on antinociceptive efficacy. Finally, the safety of multiple doses of methadone (1.5 mg/kg, SC, q 2 h, for 3 doses) was also evaluated. In addition to monitoring behavior during latency measurements, animals were assessed for overt sedation. Food intake, body weight, and running wheel activity were assessed daily for 6 days following methadone administration to evaluate for adverse effects., Results: Methadone at 1 and 1.5 mg/kg provided antinociception lasting < 2 hours, and injection volume had no significant effect on efficacy. Methadone at 0.5 mg/kg did not induce antinociception. Methadone produced transient abnormal behaviors in all hedgehogs, with more animals affected at the 1.5-mg/kg dose. Behaviors included periods of standing motionless, vocalization, chewing motions, and paw raising. Single- or multiple-dose administration of methadone had no significant effect on total food intake, body weight, or running wheel activity., Clinical Relevance: The results of this study provide additional information on providing analgesia to hedgehogs. Subcutaneous methadone (1 to 1.5 mg/kg) can be used for short-term antinociception in hedgehogs.

A 12-year-old male eclectus parrot ( Eclectus roratus ) was referred for evaluation of coelomic distention. Computed tomography and blood work revealed coelomic effusion with free coelomic mineral-attenuating material and elevations in the bile acids and aspartate aminotransferase activity, respectively. Coelomic effusion was consistent with macrophagic inflammation with abundant intracellular lipids. Initial treatment with meloxicam resulted in minimal patient improvement. Disseminated xanthogranulomatous inflammation was suspected based on imaging and diagnostic laboratory results, which were consistent with those previously reported. Biopsy samples of liver tissue and intracoelomic masses confirmed this diagnosis. Treatment was initiated with prednisolone 1 mg/kg/d for 6 months, followed by 0.5 mg/kg/d for 3 months. Clinical improvement was assessed based on owner evaluation, plasma bile acid concentrations, and repeated computed tomographic scans. After 2 months of treatment, the owner reported improved behavior and appetite; this persisted throughout treatment and when the bird was reexamined 17 months following the cessation of steroid therapy. Bile acid concentrations were normal 10 months after the prednisolone therapy was discontinued. Diagnostic imaging showed minimal coelomic effusion 10 months after the last prednisolone dose was administered, with improved ventilation of the air sacs and static to improved dystrophic mineral foci. This report describes the antemortem diagnosis and treatment of disseminated coelomic xanthogranulomatous disease in a psittacine species, with an observed measurable therapeutic response.

Objective: To characterize the epidemiologic features of rabbits with retrobulbar abscesses, including the clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, and outcome., Animals: 21 client-owned rabbits., Methods: The medical record database of a veterinary teaching hospital was searched from 2011 to 2022 for records of rabbits diagnosed with retrobulbar abscesses by CT. Data reviewed included age, breed, presenting complaint, association with an odontogenic infection, aerobic and anaerobic culture results, treatment, and outcome., Results: The primary presenting complaint was exophthalmos (19/21 [90%]). Most cases (15/21 [71%]) were associated with an odontogenic infection. Dental disease, not associated with a retrobulbar abscess (14/21 [67%]), was a common comorbidity on CT. The most common aerobic and anaerobic isolates were Streptococcus intermedius (5/12 [42%]) and Fusobacterium nucleatum (2/12 [17%]), respectively. Surgical treatment combined with long-term systemic antibiotic therapy was performed in 9 of 21 (43%) cases. It included intraoral tooth extraction (4/9 [44%]) versus extraoral peribulbar abscess lancing with either abscess packing with antibiotic-soaked gauze (3/9 [33%]) or surgical abscess debridement (2/9 [22%]). Resolution of the clinical signs with no recurrence for at least 6 months occurred in 7 of 9 (78%) surgically treated cases. Medical treatment with long-term systemic antibiotic therapy was performed in 4 of 21 (19%) cases, and 3 of 4 (75%) resolved. Due to poor prognosis or financial concerns, euthanasia was performed or recommended in 8 of 21 (38%) cases., Clinical Relevance: On the basis of the data from this study, retrobulbar abscesses in rabbits carry a guarded prognosis. When intraoral and extraoral surgical treatment options combined with systemic antibiotic therapy were used, it resolved clinical disease in most cases.

Objective: To evaluate intraoperative and postoperative complications and outcomes following subconjunctival enucleations with and without third eyelid removal in domestic rabbits., Animals: 18 client-owned rabbits with ocular disease confined to the globe that underwent 20 subconjunctival enucleation procedures at a veterinary teaching hospital., Methods: Records were retrospectively reviewed for all enucleations performed at a veterinary teaching hospital from 2014 to 2022. A standard subconjunctival enucleation procedure was performed in all cases, with third eyelid removal in 2 surgeries and without third eyelid removal in the remaining 18 surgeries. Outcomes were assessed on the basis of observations in medical records and owner follow-up., Results: 20 total enucleations were included. Reported reasons for enucleation included suspected or confirmed ocular Encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in 9 rabbits, refractory glaucoma in 4 rabbits, and various intraocular diseases in 5 rabbits. The only intraoperative complication reported was hemorrhage during the third eyelid removal in 1 surgery. Postoperative complications included serous to mucoid discharge from the surgical site in 8 of 20 surgeries and swelling at the surgery site in 2 of the 8 cases that had discharge. Postoperative swelling spontaneously resolved within 3 months of surgery; postoperative discharge spontaneously resolved within 10 months of surgery., Clinical Relevance: Subconjunctival enucleation with or without third eyelid removal in rabbits may be a viable enucleation technique to reduce the risk for intraoperative hemorrhage, but it can result in postoperative complications, including transient discharge and swelling at the surgical site.

Knowledge of lagomorph confluence sinuum anatomy on contrast-enhanced CT may prevent the misdiagnoses of intracranial, extra-axial masses. The purpose of this retrospective, observational, descriptive study was to describe the characteristics of the confluence sinuum in rabbits on contrast-enhanced CT. Images of 24 rabbits who had pre- and postcontrast CT sequences of the skull were reviewed by an American College of Veterinary Radiology-certified veterinary radiologist and third-year radiology resident. Degree of contrast enhancement within the region of the confluence sinuum was graded based on consensus as no (0), mild (1), moderate (2), or marked (3) contrast enhancement. Hounsfield units (HU) of the confluence sinuum was measured in three different regions of interest, averaged for each patient, and divided into each group for comparison using one-way ANOVA analysis. Contrast enhancement was mild in 45.8% (11/24) rabbits, moderate in 33.3% (8/24), marked in 20.8% (5/24), and none in 0.0% (0/24). There were significant differences (P < 0.05) between the average HU of the mild and marked group (P-value = 0.0001) and moderate and marked groups (P-value = 0.0010). Two rabbits with marked contrast enhancement were initially misdiagnosed with an intracranial, extra-axial mass along the parietal lobe based on contrast-enhanced CT. On necropsy, no gross or histopathological abnormalities were identified in the brain for these rabbits. In summary, contrast enhancement was identified in all rabbits (24/24) on contrast-enhanced CT imaging . This normal structure can be variable in size should not be mistaken for a pathological lesion in the absence of mass effect, secondary calvarial lysis, or hyperostosis., (© 2023 The Authors. Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American College of Veterinary Radiology.)

Limited information on the analgesic efficacy and safety of even clinically commonly used analgesic drugs in guinea pigs and chinchillas is available. Buprenorphine and meloxicam are currently the most common analgesics routinely used to treat painful conditions in guinea pigs and chinchillas. Hydromorphone has also shown to be an effective analgesic drug in these species, with limited adverse effects. Tramadol in chinchillas does not provide analgesia even at high doses, and no information is available on the efficacy of this drug in guinea pigs. Multimodal analgesic protocols should be considered whenever possible., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Regional limb perfusion (RLP) has been used to treat cases of distal limb infections in avian species. Potentially nephrotoxic drugs, such as amikacin, may increase the risk of nephrotoxicity with RLP because of the presence of the renal portal system and direct venous blood flow from the pelvic limbs to the kidneys. In a randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled study, the safety of repeated amikacin administration (20 mg/kg q24h for 3 doses) via RLP was evaluated in healthy female chickens ( Gallus gallus domesticus ; n = 8 treatment, n = 8 saline control group). Plasma uric acid concentrations were not significantly elevated in treated birds compared with the control group at any time point following RLP. One week following the final RLP, birds were necropsied and the kidneys evaluated grossly and histologically. There was no significant difference in renal pathology scores between treated and control birds or between kidneys ipsilateral to the perfused limb and contralateral kidneys. This study concludes that RLP of amikacin at high doses produced no discernable renal pathology in healthy euhydrated chickens.

Currently, drug-induced stimulation of appetite is not commonly performed in hyporexic or anorexic companion psittacine birds. Instead, to prevent a catabolic state and weight loss, supplemental feedings are routinely performed by crop gavage. However, crop gavage is not without complications and is stressful to the patient and labor intensive. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of midazolam on food intake in healthy budgerigars. In a randomized, blinded, controlled study, change in food intake after intramuscular administration of midazolam (1 mg/kg) or a placebo-control treatment (0.9% saline) was evaluated in 12 healthy adult budgerigars ( Melopsittacus undulatus ). Food intake was quantified for 1 hour before and after drug administration. Birds were monitored for feeding behavior as well as signs of sedation. After midazolam administration, a median 6-fold (1.1-28) increase in food intake was recorded. In 3 of 6 (50%) birds, the food intake increase after midazolam administration was >10-fold (median 17-fold [10-28]), whereas in the remaining 3 birds, food intake increased by only 1.7-fold (1.1-1.8). The median amount of food ingested (16.7 g/kg [3.2-43.2 g/kg]) was significantly higher after midazolam administration compared with the control group (1.9 g/kg [0.0-19.7 g/kg], P = .015). The median time birds spent displaying feeding behavior after the midazolam injection was 18% (0-43%), compared with 1% (0-20%) in the control group after saline injection. Five of 6 (83%) birds showed signs consistent with mild sedation after midazolam administration. This study demonstrates that midazolam is an appetite stimulant in budgerigars. Future studies are needed to evaluate whether midazolam's effects on food intake are dose dependent and whether the duration of effect exceeds 1 hour.

Objective: To evaluate the sedative effects of IM administration of a high or low dose of dexmedetomidine in combination with midazolam in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus)., Animals: 20 healthy adult budgerigars., Procedures: In a prospective, randomized, blinded study, birds were sedated with a high dose (HD; 0.04 mg/kg, IM; n = 10) or low dose (LD; 0.01 mg/kg, IM; 10) of dexmedetomidine in combination with midazolam (3 mg/kg, IM). Twenty minutes later, atipamezole (0.4 mg/kg [HD group] or 0.1 mg/kg [LD group], IM) and flumazenil (0.1 mg/kg, IM) were administered for reversal of sedation., Results: Times to first effect and to sternal recumbency after administration of the sedatives and times to standing and eating after administration of the antagonists did not differ between groups. Most birds (9/10 in the HD group and 7/10 in the LD group) lost the righting response by 10 minutes after sedative administration, and the peak effect for radiographic positioning was by 15 minutes. Although it was not clinically relevant, most birds showed mild resedation by 60 minutes after administration of the reversal agents. There was no significant cardiorespiratory compromise detected with either protocol., Clinical Relevance: Dexmedetomidine-midazolam can safely and effectively provide a dose-dependent level of sedation in healthy budgerigars. The HD protocol is recommended for radiographic positioning, as it allows for a more reliable, deeper plane of sedation.

Objective: To evaluate the outcome of surgical fixation of shell fractures in rehabilitated wild freshwater turtles., Animals: 51 freshwater turtles with 86 shell fractures., Procedures: The medical record database of a wildlife rehabilitation center in Wisconsin was searched from 2014 through 2019 for records of freshwater turtles with shell fractures repaired with a plate technique, screws and wire technique, or both. Signalment, fracture location, therapeutic approach (including the type of hardware used for repair), dry-docking duration, time to hardware removal, postremoval care, and outcome were evaluated., Results: 36 of 51 (71%) turtles with shell fractures experienced successful fracture healing following surgical hardware fixation, and 33 (65%) were released. Shells of 38 (75%) turtles were repaired with plates only, 5 (10%) turtles with wire only, and 8 (16%) turtles with a combination of plates and screws and wires. Of the 51 turtles, 13 (25%) did not survive > 4 weeks following hardware repair, leaving 38 animals available to assess fracture healing. Median time to start staged removal was 42 days (range, 35 to 49 days) and to complete removal of the applied hardware was 56 days (range, 26 to 77 days). Complications associated with placement of the hardware occurred in 6 of 38 (16%) turtles. Complications included screw hole infection (4/38 [11%]), fracture necrosis (1/38 [3%]), and deep screw hole penetration (1/38 [3%])., Clinical Relevance: Results indicated that shell fractures in freshwater turtles treated with surgical fixation techniques had a successful outcome. Most complications were minor, and fractures improved with time, resulting in acceptable fracture healing for release.

The field of lizard sedation, anesthesia, and locoregional anesthesia is advancing with new drug protocols being evaluated, and new locoregional techniques being developed and evaluated. Inducing and maintaining effective and safe chemical restraint in lizards can be challenging, particularly in systemically diseased individuals. Understanding the anatomic and physiologic adaptations of lizards, using reversible or partially reversible injectable protocols, and using locoregional anesthesia may increase the quality of chemical restraint, facilitate faster recoveries, and limit anesthesia-related morbidity and mortality., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To assess the antinociceptive efficacy and safety of neuraxial morphine in inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps)., Animals: 10 healthy adult bearded dragons., Procedures: Animals were sedated with alfaxalone (15 mg/kg) SC prior to neuraxial injections. In a randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover design, animals received preservative-free morphine (0.5 mg/kg) combined with lidocaine (2 mg/kg) or lidocaine (2 mg/kg) only (control treatment). For both treatments, saline (0.9% NaCl) solution was used for dilution to a total volume of 0.3 mL/kg. If the initial injection did not result in motor block of the pelvic limbs or cloaca relaxation within 10 minutes, a second injection was performed. Measurements consisted of bilateral mechanical stimulation of the limbs and at 25%, 50%, and 75% of the trunk's length as well as cloacal tone to assess spread and duration of motor block. Pelvic limb withdrawal latencies in response to a thermal noxious stimulus were measured over a 48-hour period to assess antinociception., Results: Success rate following the first injection was 90% (18/20 injections) and increased to 100% following a second injection. Motor block occurred within 5 minutes with both treatments. Pelvic limb withdrawal latencies were significantly prolonged following neuraxial morphine versus control treatment for at least 12 hours after injection. By 24 hours, no effect of morphine on pelvic limb latencies was detectable., Clinical Relevance: These results demonstrated that neuraxial administration of morphine results in regional antinociceptive effects for at least 12 hours and has no clinically relevant adverse effects in healthy bearded dragons. This technique has potential for providing regional analgesia in this species.

Objective: To evaluate glucose absorption rates as an indirect measure of fluid absorption after SC or intracoelomic (ICe) administration of 2.5% dextrose solution to experimentally dehydrated inland bearded dragons ( Pogona vitticeps )., Animals: 9 adult bearded dragons., Procedures: In a randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover design study, bearded dragons were experimentally dehydrated with a previously described protocol and then received 2.5% dextrose solution (a 1:1 mixture of 5% dextrose in isotonic multiple electrolytes solution; 20 mL/kg), SC or ICe, or a control treatment (the same electrolytes solution without added glucose; 20 mL/kg). Blood glucose (BG) concentrations were measured at predetermined times up to 24 hours after fluid administration. There was a ≥ 14-day washout period between treatments. Mean changes in BG concentration from baseline were compared among treatments., Results: Administration of 2.5% dextrose solution by either route increased BG concentration with a significantly greater change in values within 5 minutes, compared with control treatment results. The mean change in BG concentration after ICe administration was significantly greater than that after SC administration 15 and 30 minutes after injection, with mean differences of -50 and -36 mg/dL, respectively, for the SC treatment. Within 1 hour after fluid administration, there was no significant difference in BG values between the 2 dextrose administration routes., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Findings supported that fluid therapy by SC administration, which carries a lower risk of iatrogenic complications, can provide results similar to those achieved with ICe administration.

Published data are sparse regarding the recognition of clinically relevant pain and appropriate analgesia in amphibians. The amphibian analgesia literature has primarily focused on nociceptive pathways in a single species, the northern leopard frog ( Rana pipiens ). The objective of the current study was to assess the analgesic efficacy and safety of oral tramadol and subcutaneous morphine in a commonly maintained zoo and pet species, White's tree frog ( Litoria caerulea ). We hypothesized that tramadol and morphine would provide dose-dependent antinociception, as measured by significant increases in hindlimb withdrawal latency after exposure to a noxious thermal stimulus. Two randomized, placebo-controlled, complete crossover studies were performed, with tramadol ( n = 12) administered at 15, 25, and 40 mg/kg PO and morphine ( n = 12) administered at 5 and 10 mg/kg SC. Hindlimb withdrawal latency was measured for a maximum of 72 h. No adverse side effects or signs of sedation were observed with any dose or drug evaluated. No significant difference in withdrawal latency was detected between the control and either tramadol or morphine. These negative results were surprising, suggesting that the thermal nociceptive model may not be biologically relevant in amphibian species.

Objective: To assess the success rate, onset, duration and extent of motor/sensory block following neuraxial injection of two dosages of bupivacaine in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps)., Study Design: Prospective, randomized, blinded, crossover experimental study., Animals: A total of 10 adult bearded dragons (0.3 ± 0.1 kg)., Methods: After sedation with alfaxalone (15 mg kg -1 subcutaneously), neuraxial injections were performed with 1 or 2 mg kg -1 bupivacaine hydrochloride (0.5%, treatments BUP-1 and BUP-2, respectively) in a randomized treatment sequence with a 7 day washout period. If the initial bupivacaine injection was not successful within 10 minutes, a second injection was performed at the same dose. Mechanical stimulation of limbs, 25%, 50%, 75% of the trunk's length and cloacal tone were assessed., Results: Success rate following the first neuraxial injection was 95%, which increased to 100% after the second injection. Motor/sensory block were noted by 5 minutes after the injection of bupivacaine at either dose. BUP-2 was associated with more cranial spread. The median (range) duration of cloacal tone loss was longer following treatment BUP-2 [120 (75-225) minutes] than followed treatment BUP-1 [83 (25-135) minutes; p = 0.03]. Duration of pelvic limb motor block was comparable between both doses, lasting a median of 68 minutes in both treatments (p = 0.94). There was a transient, not clinically relevant increase from baseline in heart rate in treatment BUP-1 only. No significant difference from baseline in respiratory rate was noted in either treatment; however, two animals in treatment BUP-2 became apneic (10-20 minutes)., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Bupivacaine (1 mg kg -1 ) is recommended for neuraxial anesthesia in bearded dragons. In treatment BUP-2, extensive cranial spread resulted in apnea and motor block of the thoracic limb in several animals; therefore this dose is not recommended., (Copyright © 2021 Association of Veterinary Anaesthetists and American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The use of procedural sedation in birds has become a routine practice in veterinary medicine during the past 10 years, with a corresponding increase in avian sedation research. Sedation is most often used in a clinical setting for birds to facilitate examination and/or diagnostic sample collection, splint application, grooming, and minor surgical procedures. Sedation provides several benefits over manual restraint or general anesthesia when performing clinical procedures. This review provides an overview of current studies on avian sedation and discusses common indications, protocols, and adverse effects of sedation in avian patients.

Tinidazole is a second-generation nitroimidazole compound that is used as an antimicrobial to treat anaerobic bacterial and protozoal infections in humans and, less frequently, in veterinary medicine. However, metronidazole, another secondgeneration nitroimidazole, is more commonly used. Nonetheless, tinidazole has proven to be a superior therapy for parasitic infections in humans, particularly in the treatment of giardiasis. Furthermore, in chinchillas, metronidazole has been shown to cause a clinically relevant reduction in food intake after oral administration at published dosages. This study's objective was to evaluate the effect of orally administered tinidazole on food intake in healthy chinchillas. In 2 randomized, placebocontrolled, blinded, crossover studies, tinidazole was evaluated at 2 single high doses (100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg PO, n = 9) and a repeated dosing schedule at a lower dose (20 mg/kg PO q12h for 10 doses, n = 12). Food intake was measured over 24-h periods before and after drug administration. The single-dose treatment groups both displayed significantly reduced food intake (200 mg/kg: -26 ± 21%; 100 mg/kg: -9 ± 21%, P < 0.01) as compared with the control group during the first 24 h after drug administration. Food intake returned to pretreatment values within 4-5 d. Repeated administration at 20 mg/kg q12h was not associated with any significant changes in food intake. No other adverse effects were noted during this study. Tinidazole administration at single higher doses resulted in an acute self-limiting reduction in food intake. In comparison, repeated administration of lower doses (20 mg/kg PO q12h) had no significant effects on food intake in healthy chinchillas. Therefore, tinidazole may be a more suitable drug for treating Giardia and anaerobic bacterial infections in this species than the more commonly used metronidazole.

In biomedical research, rabbits are commonly sedated to facilitate a variety of procedures. Developing a sedation assessment scale enables standardization of levels of sedation and comparisons of sedation protocols, and may help in predicting sedation level requirements for different procedures. The goal of this study was to develop a rabbit sedation assessment scale using a psychometric approach. We hypothesized that the sedation scale would have construct validity, good internal consistency, and reliability. In a prospective, randomized, blinded study design, 15 (8 females, 7 males) healthy 1-y-old New Zealand white rabbits received 3 intramuscular treatments: midazolam (0.5 mg/kg; n = 6); midazolam (1.5 mg/kg)-ketamine (5 mg/kg; n = 7); and alfaxalone (4 mg/kg)-dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg/kg)-midazolam (0.2 mg/kg; n = 3). One rabbit received 2 treatments. A sedation scale was developed by using psychometric methods, with assessment performed by 6 independent raters who were blind to treatment. Final sedation scale items included posture, palpebral reflex, orbital tightening, lateral recumbency, loss of righting reflex, supraglottic airway device placement, toe pinch, and general appearance. The scale showed construct validity, good to very good interrater reliability for individual items (6 raters; intraclass correlation coefficient, 0.671 to 0.940), very good intrarater reliability (5 raters; intraclass correlation coefficient, 0.951 to 0.987), and excellent internal consistency (Cronbach α, 0.947). The sedation scale performed well under the conditions tested, suggesting that it can be applied in a wider range of settings (different populations, raters, sedation protocols).

Amlodipine is a calcium channel blocker shown to be effective in lowering blood pressure with minimal adverse effects in mammals. To provide a retrospective evaluation of amlodipine use in psittacine birds, medical records were reviewed for all avian patients prescribed amlodipine for treatment for the presumptive diagnosis of hypertension, based on clinical signs and indirect blood pressure measurements. Five birds were treated with amlodipine between 2010 and 2018. The median age was 33 years (range, 22-37 years) and 3/5 birds presented for ataxia or seizures. The median indirect systolic blood pressure at diagnosis was 243 mm Hg (range, 200-275 mm Hg). In 3/5 birds, amlodipine was the only drug prescribed, whereas, in 2/5 birds, enalapril was also prescribed in addition to amlodipine. In addition to the prescription of enalapril, blood pressure measurements were obtained indirectly, which are variables to be considered in this report. The initial median dose of amlodipine prescribed was 0.4 mg/kg (range, 0.1-0.4 mg/kg) PO q24h. In 3/5 birds, amlodipine administration was increased either in dose or frequency. Median follow-up time was 25 months (range, 2-55 months) after the initiation of amlodipine treatment. Owners in all 5 cases reported improvement of clinical signs by a median time of 2 months (range, 1-15 months). Three of 5 birds (60%) demonstrated a decreasing trend in blood pressure during the first 6 months after treatment with amlodipine was started (average, ≥20% decrease). Prospective, controlled studies are needed to investigate the efficacy of amlodipine in psittacine birds.

Objective: To determine whether plasma uric acid concentration in inland bearded dragons ( Pogona vitticeps ) was affected by recent ingestion of a meal of crickets., Animals: 12 healthy adult inland bearded dragons., Procedures: Food was withheld for 48 hours prior to experiments. Animals (6/group) were randomly assigned to receive a meal of crickets (equivalent to 1% of the animal's body weight; 10 g/kg [4.5 g/lb]; treatment group) or have food withheld for an additional 48 hours (control group). Blood samples were collected for plasma uric acid measurement just before (time 0) and 4, 24, and 48 hours after feeding. Effects of feeding and time on the targeted measurement were assessed by repeated-measures ANOVA., Results: Mean plasma uric acid concentration for the treatment group was significantly increased from the time 0 value (2.5 ± 1.5 mg/dL) 24 hours following meal ingestion (6.5 ± 1.2 mg/dL), but not at the 4-hour time point, and returned to the time 0 value by the 48-hour time point. No significant changes in plasma uric acid concentration were detected for the control group., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Results suggested food should be withheld for ≥ 48 hours prior to blood collection if inland bearded dragons are used to establish reference intervals for plasma uric acid concentration or if feasible when obtaining samples from these animals for clinical evaluation. Veterinarians should consider the time from last meal consumption when interpreting plasma uric acid concentration for this species and potentially other terrestrial insectivorous and omnivorous lizards.

Objective: To evaluate SC administration of 2 sedation protocols, ketamine-midazolam (KM) and alfaxalone-midazolam (AM), in African pygmy hedgehogs ( Atelerix albiventris )., Animals: 9 healthy adult hedgehogs (5 males, 4 females)., Procedures: A randomized, blinded, complete crossover study was performed. Sedation was induced by SC administration of either ketamine (30 mg/kg [14 mg/lb]) with midazolam (1 mg/kg [0.45 mg/lb]) or alfaxalone (3 mg/kg [1.4 mg/lb]) with midazolam (1 mg/kg), including a 2-week washout period between treatments. Flumazenil (0.05 mg/kg [0.02 mg/lb], SC) was administered 45 minutes after administration of either protocol to reverse the effects of midazolam. Physiologic variables, reflexes, and behaviors were monitored. Food intake and body weight were measured before and after sedation., Results: Deep sedation characterized by complete loss of the righting reflex, decreased jaw tone, decreased pelvic limb withdrawal reflex, and preservation of the palpebral reflex was produced in 7 of 9 hedgehogs after KM administration and all 9 hedgehogs after AM administration. Mean ± SD time to loss of righting reflex was 6.4 ± 2.4 minutes after KM administration and 10 ± 4.0 minutes after AM administration. Following flumazenil administration, no significant difference was found in recovery time between sedation with KM (18.8 ± 12.7 minutes) and AM (14.4 ± 7.8 minutes). No significant differences were found in respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, or body temperature between protocols, whereas heart rate was higher for sedation with KM. Both sedation protocols resulted in a transient reduction in food intake., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Subcutaneous administration of KM and AM provided deep sedation that might be useful to facilitate routine, noninvasive procedures in hedgehogs.

Background: Splenic lymphoma is commonly reported in domestic ferrets ( Mustela putorious furo ), but very rarely reported in wild Mustelidae species, including otters. One report described B-cell splenic lymphoma in an Asian small-clawed otter ( Aonyx cinerea ) that metastasized and was the primary reasoning for humane euthanasia (Stedman and Mills, 2014)., Case Description: The current report describes a case of splenic T-cell lymphoma in a captive North American river otter ( Lontra canadensis ). The otter died several weeks after splenectomy and no evidence of metastasis was found on gross necropsy or histopathological evaluation., Conclusion: The splenectomy performed on this individual was presumptively curative for its splenic lymphoma. Extensive myocardial fibrosis was found, and suspected to have caused severe cardiac arrhythmia leading to acute death., Competing Interests: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Objective: To evaluate antinociceptive efficacy and safety of SC buprenorphine hydrochloride administration in African pygmy hedgehogs ( Atelerix albiventris )., Animals: 12 healthy adult hedgehogs (7 males and 5 females)., Procedures: 3 crossover experimental trials were performed. In the first trial, all 12 hedgehogs were given single SC injections of buprenorphine (0.01 mg/kg [0.0045 mg/lb]), buprenorphine (0.03 mg/kg [0.014 mg/lb]), or saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (0.16 mL/kg [0.073 mL/lb]), and sedation and hind limb thermal withdrawal latency were measured. In the second trial, 6 hedgehogs were given single SC injections of buprenorphine (0.05 mg/kg [0.023 mg/lb]) or saline solution (0.16 mL/kg), and sedation and withdrawal latency were evaluated. In the third trial, 10 hedgehogs were given 3 doses of buprenorphine (0.05 mg/kg, SC, q 24 h) or saline solution (0.16 mL/kg, SC, q 24 h), and food intake and body weight were measured for 6 days., Results: For all 3 experimental trials, the sedation score was 0 for all hedgehogs at all assessment times. A single 0.01-mg/kg dose of buprenorphine significantly increased thermal withdrawal latency for 36 hours, and single 0.03- and 0.05-mg/kg doses significantly increased latencies for 48 hours. Increased locomotor activity was noted in a few hedgehogs after administration of the 0.03- and 0.05-mg/kg doses. Daily administration of buprenorphine did not have significant effects on food intake or body weight., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: SC administration of buprenorphine at single doses of 0.01, 0.03, and 0.05 mg/kg provided safe, long-lasting antinociception in African pygmy hedgehogs without apparent sedative effects.

Development of gingival enlargement and periodontitis is described in a young dwarf mongoose. Repeated treatments resulted in gingival resection and histologic evaluation however gingival enlargement was ultimately responsive to extraction of associated teeth. In cases such as these, surgical extraction of teeth associated with severe recurrent gingival enlargement should be considered to avoid the stress and risk of repeated immobilizations.

Objective: To evaluate the effects of 3 electrolyte solutions administered SC to experimentally dehydrated inland bearded dragons ( Pogona vitticeps )., Animals: 9 inland bearded dragons., Procedures: In a randomized, complete crossover study, experimental dehydration was induced by means of furosemide (10 mg/kg, SC, q 12 h for 4 doses), and then lactated Ringer solution, Plasma-Lyte A, or reptile Ringer solution (RRS; 1:1 mixture of 5% dextrose solution and isotonic crystalloid solution) was administered SC in a single 50-mL/kg dose in 3 treatments sessions separated by a minimum of 14 days. Food and water were withheld during treatment sessions. Plasma biochemical values, PCV, blood total solids and lactate concentrations, and plasma osmolarity were measured prior to (baseline) and 4 and 24 hours after fluid administration., Results: Administration of RRS resulted in severe hyperglycemia (mean ± SD plasma glucose concentration, 420 ± 62 mg/dL), compared with baseline values (190 ± 32 mg/dL), and this hyperglycemia persisted for at least 24 hours. It also resulted in significant reductions in plasma osmolarity and sodium and phosphorus concentrations, which were not observed after administration of the other 2 solutions. Administration of lactated Ringer solution caused no significant increase in blood lactate concentration., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: The changes in plasma glucose, sodium, and phosphorus concentrations and plasma osmolarity observed after SC administration of a single dose of RRS suggested this type of electrolyte solution should not be used for rehydration of bearded dragons. Rather, lactated Ringer solution or Plasma-Lyte A should be considered instead.

Chinchillas have been used mostly as fur animals and as animal models for human ontological diseases and only recently have been recognized as excellent, long-lived, and robust pet rodents. This review aims to provide updated information on emerging disease conditions in pet chinchillas, such as Streptococcus equi subsp zooepidemicus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Furthermore, this review article provides updated information on previously documented disorders, such as urolithiasis and middle ear disease, in chinchillas. This article is intended to serve as a complement to the current veterinary reference literature and to provide valuable and clinically relevant information for veterinarians treating chinchillas., Competing Interests: Disclosures The authors have nothing to disclose., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To evaluate SC administration of alfaxalone-midazolam and dexmedetomidine-midazolam for sedation of ball pythons (Python regius)., Animals: 12 healthy juvenile ball pythons., Procedures: In a randomized crossover study, each snake was administered a combination of alfaxalone (5 mg/kg [2.3 mg/lb]) and midazolam (0.5 mg/kg [0.23 mg/lb]) and a combination of dexmedetomidine (0.05 mg/kg [0.023 mg/lb]) and midazolam (0.5 mg/kg), SC, with a washout period of at least 7 days between protocols. Respiratory and heart rates and various reflexes and behaviors were assessed and compared between protocols. Forty-five minutes after protocol administration, sedation was reversed by SC administration of flumazenil (0.05 mg/kg) alone or in combination with atipamezole (0.5 mg/kg; dexmedetomidine-midazolam protocol only). Because of difficulties with visual assessment of respiratory effort after sedative administration, the experiment was repeated for a subset of 3 ball pythons, with plethysmography used to assess respiration., Results: Both protocols induced a similar level of moderate sedation with no adverse effects aside from transient apnea. Cardiopulmonary depression was more profound, but time to recovery after reversal was significantly shorter, for the dexmedetomidine-midazolam protocol than for the alfaxalone-midazolam protocol. Plethysmographic findings were consistent with visual observations and suggested that snakes compensated for a decrease in respiratory rate by increasing tidal volume amplitude., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Results indicated that both protocols induced clinically relevant sedation in ball pythons and should be useful for minor procedures such as venipuncture and diagnostic imaging. However, caution should be used when sedating snakes with compromised cardiopulmonary function. ( J Am Vet Med Assoc 2020;256:573-579.

Blue poison dart frogs ( Dendrobates tinctorius azureus ) are commonly maintained in zoological institutions and are becoming popular in the pet trade industry. Sedation or light anesthesia is required for safe and effective handling of this species. In this study, the sedative effects of subcutaneously administered alfaxalone-midazolam-dexmedetomidine (AMD) (20, 40, 5 mg/kg, respectively) and ketamine-midazolam-dexmedetomidine (KMD) (100, 40, 5 mg/kg, respectively) were compared in a prospective, randomized, blinded, crossover study in juvenile blue poison dart frogs ( n = 10). Both protocols were partially reversed 45 min after administration of either protocol with subcutaneously administered flumazenil (0.05 mg/kg) and atipamezole (50 mg/kg). Heart rate, pulmonic respiratory rate, various reflexes, and behavioral parameters were monitored after drug administration. Both protocols resulted in rapid loss of righting reflex [median (range): AMD, 5 min (5-5 min); KMD, 5 min (5-10 min)]. Time to complete recovery was similar with both protocols (mean ± SD: AMD, 97.5 ± 11.4 min; KMD, 96.5 ± 25.4 min). The AMD protocol resulted in pulmonic respiratory depression, whereas no significant difference in heart rate was found between the two protocols. All frogs were observed eating within 24 hr of chemical restraint. Gastric prolapses occurred in four frogs (AMD 3, KMD 1) that were easily reduced with a cotton-tip application. No other adverse reactions were observed. The results of this study provide two different subcutaneous chemical restraint protocols in juvenile blue poison dart frogs.

Female reproductive disorders, such as chronic egg laying, are common in captive psittacine birds. While a disease diagnosis related to reproductive disorders can often be accomplished by physical examination and diagnostic imaging, monitoring of the response to environmental modification and medical treatment is more challenging. Monitoring ideally would involve measurement of luteinizing hormone or estrogen to assess ovarian activity. However, the amount of blood required for hormone analysis is greater than the small sample size that one can collect from these birds. Additionally, the lack of reference intervals limits their use as a diagnostic tool. Because plasma triglyceride increases during sustained estrogen release from the ovary, it may be used as an alternative method for assessing ovarian activity in birds. Point-of-care (POC) analyzers for measuring lipids in human plasma use very small sample volumes and have been used for measuring triglycerides in animals, including chickens. The authors therefore performed a method comparison study with 2 POC analyzers and a reference analyzer and plasma and whole blood from psittacine birds to determine whether these meters are suitable for triglyceride measurement in a known population of psittacine birds. Correlation, Deming regression, and Bland-Altman analyses were used to assess performance, and the total observed error for each meter relative to the reference analyzer was calculated. One of the meters exhibited fair performance and, with species-specific reference intervals, is likely to be clinically useful for triglyceride measurement in psittacine birds. The other meter demonstrated poor performance with unacceptable error, and its use for this purpose is strongly discouraged.

Objective: To evaluate if intramuscular (IM) lidocaine potentiates the sedative effects of alfaxalone and results in cardiopulmonary changes in sedated bearded dragons., Study Design: Prospective experimental crossover study., Animals: A group of eight adult bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) weighing 334 ± 46 g., Methods: Animals were administered alfaxalone (10 mg kg -1 subcutaneously) and 15 minutes later either lidocaine 2% (4 mg kg -1 ) or 0.9% sodium chloride (0.2 mL kg -1 ) was administered IM in the thoracic limb. The treatments were randomized and separated by 7 days. Sedation was scored based on body position, eye closure, jaw tone, swallowing, pick up response, righting reflex and pelvic limb withdrawal reflex. Heart rate (HR) and respiratory rate (f R ) were recorded every 5 minutes until recovery from sedation., Results: Lidocaine had no significant effect on duration or depth of alfaxalone sedation. HR increased significantly for <10 minutes following lidocaine administration by a median (interquartile range) of 33% (28-37%; p = 0.024). No clinically significant effects on f R occurred following lidocaine injection., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Administration of lidocaine 2% (4 mg kg -1 ) IM did not potentiate alfaxalone sedation but resulted in a transient clinically relevant increase in HR., (Copyright © 2019 Association of Veterinary Anaesthetists and American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

An approximately 42-year-old, wild-caught, red-crowned Amazon parrot ( Amazona viridigenalis ) was evaluated for a subcutaneous mass to the right of the keel. Cytologic examination of a fine needle aspirate of the mass were suggestive of granulomatous inflammation. The mass was surgically excised, and the parrot was treated with oral nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Histologically, the mass was diagnosed as a teratoma with stratified squamous epithelial and neuroectodermal components. Tumor cells extended to surgical margins. Two years later, the neoplasm recurred, with regrowth of only the neuroectodermal component. The neoplasm was again removed surgically, but it recurred again 14 months later, necessitating a third surgery. Histopathologic examination confirmed recurrence of the original neoplasm in both instances, with incomplete margins on both excisions., (© 2019 by the Association of Avian Veterinarians.)

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effects of providing 100% O 2 , compared with provision of room air, in sedated spontaneously breathing inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). ANIMALS 8 adult bearded dragons. PROCEDURES Animals were sedated with alfaxalone (20 mg/kg, SC) and received 21% O 2 (equivalent to room air) or 100% O 2 via face mask (flow rate, 1 L/min) in a randomized, blinded, complete crossover study (2-week interval between treatments). Sedation variables, cardiopulmonary variables, venous blood gas values, and postsedation food intake were evaluated. RESULTS Respiratory rate, heart rate, oxygen saturation, and sedation quality were comparable between treatments. Venous blood gas analysis revealed a higher total Pco 2 and HCO 3 - concentration for the 21% O 2 treatment. Postsedation food intake was not affected by the inspired oxygen fraction provided during sedation. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The fraction of inspired oxygen did not appear to have clinically relevant effects on physiologic variables of bearded dragons during and after sedation. Therefore, provision of 100% O 2 can be considered for use in sedated bearded dragons without the risk of inducing hypoventilation. Similarly, failure to provide 100% O 2 would be unlikely to result in clinically relevant consequences in healthy sedated bearded dragons.

Objective: To assess the feasibility, success rate, onset, duration and extent of motor/sensory block following intrathecal injection of lidocaine in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps)., Study Design: Prospective experimental study., Animals: A group of eight adult bearded dragons (0.333 ± 0.048 kg)., Methods: The animals were sedated with alfaxalone (15 mg kg -1 ) subcutaneously. Neuraxial injections were performed with 1% lidocaine (2 mg kg -1 ) or 0.9% sodium chloride (0.2 mL kg -1 ) in all animals with a 7 day interval. If the initial injection did not result in motor block of the pelvic limbs within 10 minutes, a second injection was performed at the same dose. Measurements consisted of bilateral mechanical stimulation of limbs; 25%, 50%, and 75% of the trunk's length; and cloacal tone. Animals were monitored for any untoward side effects by monitoring heart rate (HR), respiratory rate, righting reflex and head position., Results: Success rate following the first injection of lidocaine was 50% (four out of eight animals) and increased to 75% (six out of eight animals) following a second injection. Onset of motor/sensory block occurred within 5 minutes in all successful injections. Duration and extent were variable, with most bearded dragons presenting motor/sensory block of cloaca and pelvic limbs (six out of six) and 25% of the trunk (five out of six) with mean ± standard deviation (range) duration of 49 ± 28 (25-100), 48 ± 25 (25-90) and 40 ± 14 (25-50) minutes, respectively. Confirmation of intrathecal injection by aspiration of cerebrospinal fluid was not possible. Neuraxial lidocaine significantly increased depth and duration of sedation, with a transient increase in HR, compared with saline., Conclusion and Clinical Relevance: Neuraxial lidocaine is a feasible technique with moderate success rate and low risk of complication in bearded dragons. This technique has potential for improving the management of anesthesia in this species., (Copyright © 2018 Association of Veterinary Anaesthetists and American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The green-naped lorikeet ( Trichoglossus haematodus haematodus) is a small, brightly colored psittacine that is one of many subspecies of the rainbow lorikeet popular in captivity. Overall, the rainbow lorikeet population is declining but the wide range of subspecies means the population is classified as "least concern" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The goal of this study was to establish normal hematologic and plasma biochemical analyte reference intervals for juvenile green-naped lorikeets. Hematology and plasma biochemistry variables were determined for 102 clinically healthy, captive-born, juvenile (2-6 mo) green-naped lorikeets house at a single institution. This study is the first report for hematologic and plasma biochemical values for any Trichoglossus species.

Lateral body wall herniation with involvement of the oviduct was diagnosed in a female nanday conure ( Aratinga nenday ) and a female eclectus parrot ( Eclectus roratus ). A history of chronic egg laying and chronic reproductive activity was reported in both cases. A subcutaneous mass in the area of the caudal left lateral body wall was present in both birds. Diagnostic imaging (ultrasonography, computed tomography) and cytologic examination lead to the diagnosis of left lateral body wall herniation with involvement of the oviduct. In the conure, a developing egg was contained within the herniated oviduct. Both cases were successfully treated by salpingohysterectomy and surgical correction of the hernal ring. Lateral body wall herniation with oviductal involvement in birds has not previously been reported and should be considered as a differential for birds presenting with masses originating from the lateral body wall., (© 2018 by the Association of Avian Veterinarians.)

Positive contrast gastrointestinal (GI) studies are performed frequently in avian medicine to identify GI obstruction, luminal distension, and intracoelomic mass effects. However, repeated manual restraint and radiographic positioning may result in a stress-response and associated morbidity in birds, which can be attenuated by administration of sedative drugs. In mammals, many sedative drugs have been shown to affect GI transit times and motility. In this randomized, blinded, controlled prospective study, the effects of midazolam (M; 6 mg/kg IM) and midazolam-butorphanol (MB; 3 mg/kg each IM) on GI transit times were evaluated in 12 healthy cockatiels ( Nymphicus hollandicus ). Iohexol (20 mL/kg) was administered by crop gavage 15 minutes after induction of sedation, and fluoroscopic images were obtained at different time points. Both sedation protocols significantly affected GI transit times and motility, and the MB protocol had more pronounced effects. Overall median (range) GI transit times were 60 (30-120), 90 (30-120), and 120 (120-180) minutes for the control, M, and MB groups, respectively. Ventricular contractions were markedly reduced with both sedation protocols, while esophageal boluses were reduced only in the MB group. Visualization of the GI tract after iohexol administration was graded highest in the control group and poorest in the MB group. Our results show that commonly used sedative drugs have significant effects on GI transit time and motility in birds. Therefore, GI transit times obtained in sedated birds should not be compared to available reference transit times obtained from unsedated animals., (© 2018 by the Association of Avian Veterinarians.)

OBJECTIVE To compare sedation in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) after intranasal administration of midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol. ANIMALS 9 healthy adult cockatiels. PROCEDURES A randomized, controlled, blinded, complete crossover study was conducted. Birds were assigned to 3 treatment groups. Midazolam (3 mg/kg), midazolam-butorphanol (3 mg/kg for each drug), or sterile saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (control treatment) was administered intranasally. Sedation quality was assessed at 3 time points by use of eye and body position; response to visual, auditory, and tactile stimulation; and response during manual restraint on the basis of eye position and struggling intensity. To evaluate attenuation of the manual restraint-induced stress response, heart rate, respiratory rate, and cloacal temperature were measured over a 15-minute period. Treatments were repeated after a minimum washout period of 7 days. RESULTS Median onset of first sedation effects was 85 seconds (range, 60 to 120 seconds) for midazolam and 90 seconds (range, 45 to 180 seconds) for midazolam-butorphanol. Midazolam-butorphanol resulted in significantly less vigorous struggling during restraint than did midazolam or the control treatment. Heart rate did not differ significantly among treatments. The stress-induced increase in respiratory rate was significantly attenuated by midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol, whereas the increase in cloacal temperature was not attenuated by midazolam or midazolam-butorphanol. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Intranasal administration of midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol resulted in a rapid onset of sedation in cockatiels. Midazolam-butorphanol resulted in deeper sedation in both restrained and unrestrained birds than did midazolam alone. Midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol both provided safe and effective sedation in cockatiels.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the diuretic effects and associated changes in hematologic and plasma biochemical values following SC furosemide administration to water-deprived inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). ANIMALS 9 bearded dragons. PROCEDURES In a crossover study design, furosemide (5 or 10 mg/kg) was administered SC every 12 hours for 4 doses or no treatment (control treatment) was provided for the same period. Food and water were withheld. Body weight was recorded before (baseline) and 12 hours after treatment sessions ended and then after 5 minutes of soaking in a water bath. Blood samples were collected at baseline and 12 hours after treatment sessions ended for various measurements. RESULTS Compared with control values, a significant decrease from baseline in body weight was detected after furosemide treatment at 5 and 10 mg/kg (mean ± SD percentage decrease, 5.5 ± 3.2% and 5.2 ± 4.1%, respectively). Soaking resulted in a significant increase in body weight after the 5- and 10-mg/kg furosemide treatments (mean ± SD percentage increase, 2.9 ± 1.8% and 5.6 ± 2.5%, respectively), compared with change in body weight after the control treatment (0.7 ± 0.7%). Plasma total solids and total protein concentrations increased significantly with both furosemide treatments, and PCV increased significantly with the 10 mg/kg treatment only. No significant or relevant differences were identified in plasma osmolarity or uric acid or electrolyte concentrations. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Furosemide as administered resulted in hemoconcentration and weight loss in bearded dragons, most likely owing to its diuretic effects. With additional research, furosemide could be considered for treatment of congestive heart failure and other conditions requiring diuresis in bearded dragons.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate whether the sedative effects of a combination of dexmedetomidine and ketamine differed when it was administered IM in a hind limb versus a forelimb of leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius). DESIGN Randomized crossover study. ANIMALS 9 healthy adult leopard geckos. PROCEDURES Each gecko received a combination of dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg/kg [0.045 mg/lb]) and ketamine (10 mg/kg [4.5 mg/lb]; DK), IM, in a forelimb and hind limb in a randomized order and with a 7-day interval between treatments. All geckos received atipamezole (1 mg/kg [0.45 mg/lb], SC) 45 minutes after DK administration. Palpebral and righting reflexes, jaw tone, and superficial pain and escape responses were each assessed on a 3-point scale, and the scores for those variables were summed to calculate a sedation score. Those variables and heart and respiratory rates were evaluated at predetermined times before and for 1 hour after DK administration. RESULTS For the forelimb treatment, mean sedation score was higher and mean heart rate was lower than the corresponding values for the hind limb treatment at most time points after DK administration. The righting reflex remained intact for all 9 geckos following the hind limb treatment but became absent in 7 geckos following the forelimb treatment. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that the extent of DK-induced sedation was greater when the combination was injected IM in a forelimb versus a hind limb of leopard geckos, likely owing to a hepatic first-pass effect following hind limb injection. In reptiles, IM hind limb administration of drugs that undergo hepatic metabolism and excretion is not recommended.

Tibiotarsal fractures are a common presentation in small bird species and anecdotally have been reported to carry a good prognosis with proper treatment, such as external coaptation. For this retrospective study, the medical records of 5 institutions were reviewed for tibiotarsal fractures diagnosed in companion birds weighing less than 200 g. A total of 86 cases met the inclusion criteria. Cockatiels ( Nymphicus hollandicus) (24/86) and budgerigars ( Melopsittacus undulatus) (19/86) were the most frequently represented species. Median body weight of the birds included was 72 g (range, 16-182 g). Mid-diaphyseal (46/86) and closed (73/86) fractures with intact, deep pain sensation in the affected limb (69/76) were most frequent. A tape splint alone (79/86) or a tape splint in addition to an intramedullary pin (7/86) were applied in all cases. Median time to fracture stabilization based on palpation was 19 days (range, 7-49 days). In most cases (61/86), the initial splint applied was maintained until fracture healing was complete. A successful outcome was documented in 92% (79/86) of birds. Fractures caused by a dog or cat attack, birds presenting without deep pain sensation in the affected limb, and cases where the splint was removed before 14 days after fixation were associated with a significantly increased risk of complications, resulting in an unsuccessful outcome. The findings of this study indicated that a tape splint is an appropriate means for treatment of tibiotarsal fractures in birds weighing less than 200 g.

Buprenorphine is routinely used in chinchillas at reported doses of 0.01 to 0.1 mg/kg IM or SC. However, these dose recommendations are based on anecdotal reports or extrapolation from studies in other species. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the analgesic efficacy and safety of subcutaneously administered buprenorphine in chinchillas. Using a randomized, blind, controlled, complete crossover design, we evaluated buprenorphine at a single dose of 0.05, 0.1 or 0.2 mg/kg SC (experiment A) and 0.2 mg/kg SC (experiment B). Analgesic efficacy was determined by measuring limb withdrawal latencies in response to a thermal noxious stimulus (Hargreaves method) at 0, 3, 6, 12, and 24 h (experiment A) and at 0, 1, 2, 4, and 8 h (experiment B). In a third experiment, food intake and fecal output were monitored after repeated administration of buprenorphine (0.2 mg/kg SC every 6 h for 3 doses). Buprenorphine at 0.2 mg/kg SC, but not at 0.05 or 0.1 mg/kg SC, significantly increased limb withdrawal latencies for less than 4 h. Self-limiting reduction in food intake and fecal output occurred after administration at the 0.2-mg/kg dose in animals undergoing algesiometry. In chinchillas not undergoing algesiometry, the administration of 3 doses at 0.2 mg/kg SC every 6 h did not reduce food intake but significantly decreased fecal output for the first 24 h. Additional studies are needed to evaluate buprenorphine in different algesiometry models and to establish its pharmacokinetic profile in chinchillas.

Limited information is available regarding the efficacy of opioid analgesics in chinchillas. Here we sought to evaluate the analgesic efficacy and safety of hydromorphone in chinchillas. In a randomized, controlled, blind, complete crossover design, hydromorphone was administered at 0.5, 1, and 2 mg/kg SC to 16 chinchillas. Analgesic efficacy was determined by measuring hindlimb withdrawal latencies after a thermal noxious stimulus (Hargreaves method) at 0, 1, 2, 4, and 8 h after drug administration. Changes in daily food intake and fecal output after hydromorphone administration were recorded. At 2 mg/kg SC, but not at lower dosages, hydromorphone increased withdrawal latencies for less than 4 h. Food intake was reduced after all 3 dosages, and fecal output decreased in the 1- and 2-mg/kg groups. The decreases in these parameters were dose-dependent, with the greatest reduction measured over the first 24 h. Our current results indicate that hydromorphone at 2 mg/kg SC is an effective, short-acting analgesic drug in chinchillas that transiently reduces food intake and fecal output. Further studies are needed to evaluate the safety of hydromorphone in animals undergoing surgical procedures and general anesthesia and to determine whether lower doses provide analgesia in different nociceptive models.

Disorders of the avian reproductive tract are common, yet monitoring their resolution presents a diagnostic dilemma. Reproductive hormones such as luteinizing hormone or estrogen are the best reflection of reproductive status, but the required sample volumes and lack of reference intervals limit their clinical utility. An alternative analyte is blood triglyceride, the concentration of which rises markedly during sustained estrogen release from the ovary. Portable meters for measuring human blood triglyceride concentration offer the advantage of using minimal sample volumes, but these have not been validated for use in birds. We assessed the precision and accuracy of 2 portable meters for measuring blood triglyceride concentration in pooled whole blood and plasma from chickens ( n = 42), and performed method comparison using a reference analyzer and determined total error. Within-run repeatability was fair-to-excellent using whole blood and plasma (range: 2.5-11.5%), and between-run repeatability using plasma was similar (3.1-12.2%). The meters performed well in recovery and dilution studies in which almost all readings fell within the preset requirement of 75-125%. Correlations between each meter, using whole blood and plasma, and the reference analyzer, using plasma only, were high to very high (0.86-0.98). Bias determined by Bland-Altman analysis was similar between whole blood and plasma for each meter, yet markedly different between the meters. The calculated total observed error was consequently within our pre-set total allowable error of 25% for one meter but not the other, indicating the requirement for a meter-specific reference interval.