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Patients with heart failure (HF) have augmented vascular tone, which increases cardiac workload, impairing ventricular output and promoting further myocardial dysfunction. The molecular mechanisms underlying the maladaptive vascular responses observed in HF are not fully understood. Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) control vasoconstriction via a [Ca.sup.2+]-dependent process, in which the type 1 inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R1) on the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) plays a major role. To dissect the mechanistic contribution of intracellular [Ca.sup.2+] release to the increased vascular tone observed in HF, we analyzed the remodeling of IP3R1 in aortic tissues from patients with HF and from controls. VSMC IP3R1 channels from patients with HF and HF mice were hyperphosphorylated by both serine and tyrosine kinases. VSMCs isolated from [IP3R1.sup.VSMC-/-] mice exhibited blunted [Ca.sup.2+] responses to angiotensin II (ATII) and norepinephrine compared with control VSMCs. [IP3R1.sup.VSMC-/-] mice displayed significantly reduced responses to ATII, both in vivo and ex vivo. HF [IP3R1.sup.VSMC-/-] mice developed significantly less afterload compared with HF [IP3R1.sup.fl/fl] mice and exhibited significantly attenuated progression toward decompensated HF and reduced interstitial fibrosis. [Ca.sup.2+]-dependent phosphorylation of the MLC by MLCK activated VSMC contraction. MLC phosphorylation was markedly increased in VSMCs from patients with HF and HF mice but reduced in VSMCs from HF [IP3R1.sup.VSMC-/-] mice and HF WT mice treated with ML-7. Taken together, our data indicate that VSMC IP3R1 is a major effector of increased vascular tone, which contributes to increased cardiac afterload and decompensation in HF., Introduction Heart failure (HF) is a complex clinical syndrome that remains a leading cause of mortality despite decades of intense efforts to develop novel therapeutics (1, 2). Beginning early in [...]

Cancer-associated muscle weakness is a poorly understood phenomenon, and there is no effective treatment. Here we find that seven different mouse models of human osteolytic bone metastases--representing breast, lung and prostate cancers, as well as multiple myeloma--exhibited impaired muscle function, implicating a role for the tumor-bone microenvironment in cancer-associated muscle weakness. We found that transforming growth factor (TGF)-[beta], released from the bone surface as a result of metastasis-induced bone destruction, upregulated NADPH oxidase 4 (Nox4), resulting in elevated oxidization of skeletal muscle proteins, including the ryanodine receptor and calcium (Ca[sup.2+]) release channel (RyR1). The oxidized RyR1 channels leaked Ca[sup.2+], resulting in lower intracellular signaling, which is required for proper muscle contraction. We found that inhibiting RyR1 leakage, TGF-[beta] signaling, TGF-[beta] release from bone or Nox4 activity improved muscle function in mice with MDA-MB-231 bone metastases. Humans with breast- or lung cancer-associated bone metastases also had oxidized skeletal muscle RyR1 that is not seen in normal muscle. Similarly, skeletal muscle weakness, increased Nox4 binding to RyR1 and oxidation of RyR1 were present in a mouse model of Camurati-Engelmann disease, a nonmalignant metabolic bone disorder associated with increased TGF-[beta] activity. Thus, pathological TGF-[beta] release from bone contributes to muscle weakness by decreasing Ca[sup.2+]-induced muscle force production., Author(s): David L Waning [1]; Khalid S Mohammad [1]; Steven Reiken [2]; Wenjun Xie [2]; Daniel C Andersson [2]; Sutha John [1]; Antonella Chiechi [1]; Laura E Wright [1]; Alisa [...]

The type 2 ryanodine receptor (RyR2) is a [Ca.sup.2] release channel on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of several types of cells, including cardiomyocytes and pancreatic [beta] cells. In cardiomyocytes, RyR2-dependent [Ca.sup.2] release is critical for excitation-contraction coupling; however, a functional role for RyR2 in [beta] cell insulin secretion and diabetes mellitus remains controversial. Here, we took advantage of rare RyR2 mutations that were identified in patients with a genetic form of exercise-induced sudden death (catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia [CPVT]). As these mutations result in a 'leaky' RyR2 channel, we exploited them to assess RyR2 channel function in [beta] cell dynamics. We discovered that CPVT patients with mutant leaky RyR2 present with glucose intolerance, which was heretofore unappreciated. In mice, transgenic expression of CPVT-associated RyR2 resulted in impaired glucose homeostasis, and an in-depth evaluation of pancreatic islets and [beta] cells from these animals revealed intracellular [Ca.sup.2] leak via oxidized and nitrosylated RyR2 channels, activated ER stress response, mitochondrial dysfunction, and decreased fuel-stimulated insulin release. Additionally, we verified the effects of the pharmacological inhibition of intracellular [Ca.sup.2] leak in CPVT-associated RyR2-expressing mice, in human islets from diabetic patients, and in an established murine model of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Taken together, our data indicate that RyR2 channels play a crucial role in the regulation of insulin secretion and glucose homeostasis., Introduction The molecular mechanisms underlying insulin secretion and glucose metabolism have not been fully elucidated (1-6). Numerous studies have demonstrated that calcium ([Ca.sup.2+]) plays a pivotal role in insulin secretion [...]

Ryanodine receptors (RyRs) mediate the rapid release of calcium ([Ca.sup.2+]) from intracellular stores into the cytosol, which is essential for numerous cellular functions including excitation-contraction coupling in muscle. Lack of sufficient structural detail has impeded understanding of RyR gating and regulation. Here we report the closed-state structure of the 2.3-megadalton complex of the rabbit skeletal muscle type 1 RyR (RyR1), solved by single-particle electron cryomicroscopy at an overall resolution of 4.8 Å. We fitted a polyalanine-level model to all 3,757 ordered residues in each protomer, defining the transmembrane pore in unprecedented detail and placing all cytosolic domains as tertiary folds. The cytosolic assembly is built on an extended α-solenoid scaffold connecting key regulatory domains to the pore. The RyR1 pore architecture places it in the six-transmembrane ion channel superfamily. A unique domain inserted between the second and third transmembrane helices interacts intimately with paired EF-hands originating from the α-solenoid scaffold, suggesting a mechanism for channel gating by [Ca.sup.2+]., Ryanodine receptors (RyRs) are intracellular [Ca.sup.2+] release channels on the sarcoplasmic and endoplasmic reticula required for fundamental cellular functions in most tissues, including skeletal and cardiac muscle excitation-contraction coupling, synaptic [...]

Antagonists of L-type [Ca.sup.2+] channels (LTCCs) have been used to treat human cardiovascular diseases for decades. However, these inhibitors can have untoward effects in patients with heart failure, and their overall therapeutic profile remains nebulous given differential effects in the vasculature when compared with those in cardiomyocytes. To investigate this issue, we examined mice heterozygous for the gene encoding the pore-forming subunit of LTCC (calcium channel, voltage-dependent, L type, α1C subunit [Cacna1c mice; referred to herein as α1[C.sup.+/-] mice]) and mice in which this gene was loxP targeted to achieve graded heart-specific gene deletion (termed herein α1C-loxP mice). Adult cardiomyocytes from the hearts of α1[C.sup.-/+] mice at 10 weeks of age showed a decrease in LTCC current and a modest decrease in cardiac function, which we initially hypothesized would be cardioprotective. However, α1[C.sup.+/-] mice subjected to pressure overload stimulation, isoproterenol infusion, and swimming showed greater cardiac hypertrophy, greater reductions in ventricular performance, and greater ventricular dilation than α1[C.sup.+/-] controls. The same detrimental effects were observed in α1C-loxP animals with a cardiomyocytespecific deletion of one allele. More severe reductions in α1C protein levels with combinatorial deleted alleles produced spontaneous cardiac hypertrophy before 3 months of age, with early adulthood lethality. Mechanisti-cally, our data suggest that a reduction in LTCC current leads to neuroendocrine stress, with sensitized and leaky sarcoplasmic reticulum [Ca.sup.2+] release as a compensatory mechanism to preserve contractility. This state results in calcineurin/nuclear factor of activated T cells signaling that promotes hypertrophy and disease., Introduction Voltage-gated L-type [Ca.sup.2+] channels (LTCCs) are the primary source of [Ca.sup.2+] influx to initiate cardiac excitation-contraction coupling (ECC) (1, 2). The molecular composition of the LTCC in cardiomyocytes includes [...]

During the classic 'fight-or-flight' stress response, sympathetic nervous system activation leads to catechol-amine release, which increases heart rate and contractility, resulting in enhanced cardiac output. Catecholamines bind to β-adrenergic receptors, causing cAMP generation and activation of PKA, which phosphorylates multiple targets in cardiac muscle, including the cardiac ryanodine receptor/calcium release channel (RyR2) required for muscle contraction. PKA phosphorylation of RyR2 enhances channel activity by sensitizing the channel to cytosolic calcium ([Ca.sup.2+]). Here, we found that mice harboring RyR2 channels that cannot be PKA phosphorylated (referred to herein as RyR2-[S2808A.sup.+/+] mice) exhibited blunted heart rate and cardiac contractile responses to catecholamines (isoproterenol). The isoproterenol-induced enhancement of ventricular myocyte [Ca.sup.2+] transients and fractional shortening (contraction) and the spontaneous beating rate of sinoatrial nodal cells were all blunted in RyR2-[S2808A.sup.+/+] mice. The blunted cardiac response to catecholamines in RyR2-[S2808A.sup.+/+] mice resulted in impaired exercise capacity. RyR2-[S2808A.sup.+/+] mice were protected against chronic catecholaminergic-induced cardiac dysfunction. These studies identify what we believe to be new roles for PKA phosphorylation of RyR2 in both the heart rate and contractile responses to acute catecholaminergic stimulation., Introduction During exercise, heart rate (chronotropy) and cardiac contractility (inotropy) increase to meet the metabolic demands of the organs. Stress-induced activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) results in catecholamine [...]

Increased sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) [Ca.sup.2+] leak via the cardiac ryanodine receptor/calcium release channel (RyR2) is thought to play a role in heart failure (HF) progression. Inhibition of this leak is an emerging therapeutic strategy. To explore the role of chronic PKA phosphorylation of RyR2 in HF pathogenesis and treatment, we generated a knockin mouse with aspartic acid replacing serine 2808 (mice are referred to herein as RyR2-[S2808D.sup.+/+] mice). This mutation mimics constitutive PKA hyperphosphorylation of RyR2, which causes depletion of the stabilizing subunit FKBP12.6 (also known as calstabin2), resulting in leaky RyR2. RyR2-[S2808D.sup.+/+] mice developed age-dependent cardiomyopathy, elevated RyR2 oxidation and nitrosylation, reduced SR [Ca.sup.2+] store content, and increased diastolic SR [Ca.sup.2+] leak. After myocardial infarction, RyR2-[S2808D.sup.+/+] mice exhibited increased mortality compared with WT littermates. Treatment with S107, a 1,4-benzothiazepine derivative that stabilizes RyR2-calstabin2 interactions, inhibited the RyR2-mediated diastolic SR [Ca.sup.2+] leak and reduced HF progression in WT and RyR2-[S2808D.sup.+/+] mice. In contrast, β-adrenergic receptor blockers improved cardiac function in WT but not in RyR2-[S2808D.sup.+/+] mice.Thus, chronic PKA hyperphosphorylation of RyR2 results in a diastolic leak that causes cardiac dysfunction. Reversing PKA hyperphosphorylation of RyR2 is an important mechanism underlying the therapeutic action of β-blocker therapy in HF., Introduction Heart failure (HF), a syndrome characterized by progressive deterioration of cardiac function, represents a major public health burden and is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the [...]

The force frequency relationship (FFR), first described by Bowditch 139 years ago as the observation that myocardial contractility increases proportionally with increasing heart rate, is an important mediator of enhanced cardiac output during exercise. Individuals with heart failure have defective positive FFR that impairs their cardiac function in response to stress, and the degree of positive FFR deficiency correlates with heart failure progression. We have identified a mechanism for FFR involving heart rate dependent phosphorylation of the major cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium release channel/ryanodine receptor (RyR2), at Ser2814, by calcium/calmodulin--dependent serine/threonine kinase-[delta] (CaMKII[delta]). Mice engineered with an RyR2-S2814A mutation have RyR2 channels that cannot be phosphorylated by CaMKII[delta], and exhibit a blunted positive FFR. Ex vivo hearts from RyR2-S2814A mice also have blunted positive FFR, and cardiomyocytes isolated from the RyR2-S2814A mice exhibit impaired rate-dependent enhancement of cytosolic calcium levels and fractional shortening. The cardiac RyR2 macromolecular complexes isolated from murine and human failing hearts have reduced CaMKII[delta] levels. These data indicate that CaMKII[delta] phosphorylation of RyR2 plays an important role in mediating positive FFR in the heart, and that defective regulation of RyR2 by CaMKII[delta]-mediated phosphorylation is associated with the loss of positive FFR in failing hearts. calcium channels | excitation-contraction coupling doi/ 10.1073/pnas.1005843107

Patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) have a progressive dilated cardiomyopathy associated with fatal cardiac arrhythmias. Electrical and functional abnormalities have been attributed to cardiac fibrosis; however, electrical abnormalities may occur in the absence of overt cardiac histopathology. Here we show that structural and functional remodeling of the cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) [Ca.sup.2+] release channel/ryanodine receptor (RyR2) occurs in the mdx mouse model of DMD. RyR2 from mdx hearts were S-nitrosylated and depleted of calstabin2 (FKBP12.6), resulting in 'leaky' RyR2 channels and a diastolic SR [Ca.sup.2+] leak. Inhibiting the depletion of calstabin2 from the RyR2 complex with the [Ca.sup.2+] channel stabilizer S107 ('rycal') inhibited the SR [Ca.sup.2+] leak, inhibited aberrant depolarization in isolated cardiomyocytes, and prevented arrhythmias in vivo. This suggests that diastolic SR [Ca.sup.2+] leak via RyR2 due to S-nitrosylation of the channel and calstabin2 depletion from the channel complex likely triggers cardiac arrhythmias. Normalization of the RyR2-mediated diastolic SR [Ca.sup.2+] leak prevents fatal sudden cardiac arrhythmias in DMD. calcium | excitation-contraction coupling | heart | sudden cardiac death | myopathy doi/ 10.1073/pnas.0908540107

The [Ca.sup.2+] release channel ryanodine receptor 2 (RyR2) is required for excitation-contraction coupling in the heart and is also present in the brain. Mutations in RyR2 have been linked to exercise-induced sudden cardiac death (catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia [CPVT]). CPVT-associated RyR2 mutations result in "leaky" RyR2 channels due to the decreased binding of the calstabin2 (FKBP12.6) subunit, which stabilizes the closed state of the channel. We found that mice heterozygous for the R2474S mutation in Ryr2 (Ryr2-R2474S mice) exhibited spontaneous generalized tonic-clonic seizures (which occurred in the absence of cardiac arrhythmias), exercise-induced ventricular arrhythmias, and sudden cardiac death. Treatment with a novel RyR2-specific compound (S107) that enhances the binding of calstabin2 to the mutant Ryr2-R2474S channel inhibited the channel leak and prevented cardiac arrhythmias and raised the seizure threshold. Thus, CPVT-associated mutant leaky Ryr2-R2474S channels in the brain can cause seizures in mice, independent of cardiac arrhythmias. Based on these data, we propose that CPVT is a combined neurocardiac disorder in which leaky RyR2 channels in the brain cause epilepsy, and the same leaky channels in the heart cause exercise-induced sudden cardiac death., Introduction Pharmacological seizure models have implicated abnormalities in intracellular [Ca.sup.2+] cycling of inhibitory interneurons and/or astrocytes as a mechanism of seizure generation (1), (2), and the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R), [...]

During exercise, defects in calcium ([Ca.sup.2+]) release have been proposed to impair muscle function. Here, we show that during exercise in mice and humans, the major [Ca.sup.2+] release channel required for excitationcontraction coupling (ECC) in skeletal muscle, the ryanodine receptor (RyR1), is progressively PKA-hyperphosphorylated, S-nitrosylated, and depleted of the phosphodiesterase PDE4D3 and the RyR1 stabilizing subunit calstabin1 (FKBP12), resulting in 'leaky' channels that cause decreased exercise tolerance in mice. Mice with skeletal musclespecific calstabin1 deletion or PDE4D deficiency exhibited significantly impaired exercise capacity. A small molecule ($107) that prevents depletion of calstabin1 from the RyR1 complex improved force generation and exercise capacity, reduced [Ca.sup.2+]-dependent neutral protease calpain activity and plasma creatine kinase levels. Taken together, these data suggest a possible mechanism by which [Ca.sup.2+] leak via calstabin1-depleted RyR1 channels leads to defective [Ca.sup.2+] signaling, muscle damage, and impaired exercise capacity. muscle fatigue | calcium channel | calstabin | exitation-contraction coupling | rycals

Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia is a form of exercise-induced sudden cardiac death that has been linked to mutations in the cardiac [Ca.sup.2+] release channel/ryanodine receptor (RYR2) located on the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). We have shown that catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia-linked RyR2 mutations significantly decrease the binding affinity for calstabin-2 (FKBP12.6), a subunit that stabilizes the closed state of the channel. We have proposed that RyR2-mediated diastolic SR [Ca.sup.2+] leak triggers ventricular tachycardia (VT) and sudden cardiac death. In calstabin-2-deficient mice, we have now documented diastolic 5R [Ca.sup.2+] leak, monophasic action potential alternans, and bidirectional VT. Calstabin-deficient cardiomyocytes exhibited SR [Ca.sup.2+] leak-induced aberrant transient inward currents in diastole consistent with delayed after-depolarizations. The 1,4-benzothiazepine JTV519, which increases the binding affinity of calstabin-2 for RYR2, inhibited the diastolic SR [Ca.sup.2+] leak, monophasic action potential alternans and triggered arrhythmias. Our data suggest that calstabin-2 deficiency is as a critical mediator of triggers that initiate cardiac arrhythmias. calcium release channel | calstabin | heart failure | JTV519 | sudden cardiac death

The ryanodine receptor (RyR)/calcium-release channel on the sarcoplasmic reticulum mediates intracellular calcium release required for striated muscle contraction. RyR2, the predominant isoform in cardiac myocytes, comprises a macromolecular complex that includes calstabin2 (FKBP12.6). Calstabin2, an 11.8-kDa cis-trans peptidyl-prolyl isomerase (apparent molecular mass 12.6 kDa), stabilizes the closed state of the RyR2 channel, but the mechanism by which it achieves this regulation is not fully understood. Protein kinase A (PKA) phosphorylation of RyR2 decreases the affinity of calstabin2 for the RyR2 channel complex. In the present study we identified key aspartic acid residues on calstabin2 that are involved in binding to RyR2 and likely play a role in PKA phosphorylation-induced dissociation of calstabin2 from RyR2. We show that a mutant calstabin2 in which a key negatively charged residue (Asp-37) has been neutralized binds to a mutant RyR2 channel that mimics constitutively PKA-phosphorylated RyR2 (RyR2-S2808D). Furthermore, using wild-type and genetically altered murine models of heart failure induced by myocardial infarction, we show that manipulating the stoichiometry between calstabin2 and RyR2 can restore normal cardiac function in vivo.

Defective regulation of the cardiac ryanodine receptor (RYR2)/ calcium release channel, required for excitation-contraction coupling in the heart, has been linked to cardiac arrhythmias and heart failure. For example, diastolic calcium 'leak' via RyR2 channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum has been identified as an important factor contributing to impaired contractility in heart failure and ventricular arrhythmias that cause sudden cardiac death. In patients with heart failure, chronic activation of the 'fight or flight' stress response leads to protein kinase A (PKA) hyperphosphorylation of RyR2 at Ser-2808. PKA phosphorylation of RyR2 Ser-2808 reduces the binding affinity of the channel-stabilizing subunit calstabin2, resulting in leaky RyR2 channels. We developed RyR2-S2808A mice to determine whether Ser-2808 is the functional PKA phosphorylation site on RYR2. Furthermore, mice in which the RyR2 channel cannot be PKA phosphorylated were relatively protected against the development of heart failure after myocardial infarction. Taken together, these data show that PKA phosphorylation of Ser-2808 on the RyR2 channel appears to be a critical mediator of progressive cardiac dysfunction after myocardial infarction. calstabin2 | 12.6 kDa FK506-binding protein | myocardical infarction | sudden cardiac death

Abnormalities in intracellular calcium release and reuptake are responsible for decreased contractility in heart failure (HF). We have previously shown that cardiac ryanodine receptors (RyRs) are protein kinase A-hyperphosphorylated and depleted of the regulatory subunit calstabin-2 in HF. Moreover, similar alterations in skeletal muscle RyR have been linked to increased fatigability in HF. To determine whether restoration of calstabin binding to RyR may ameliorate cardiac and skeletal muscle dysfunction in HF, we treated WT and calstabin-[2.sup.-/-] mice subjected to myocardial infarction (MI) with JTV519. JTV519, a 1,4-benzothiazepine, is a member of a class of drugs known as calcium channel stabilizers, previously shown to increase calstabin binding to RyR. Echocardiography at 21 days after MI demonstrated a significant increase in ejection fraction in WT mice treated with JTV519 (45.8 [+ or -] 5.1%) compared with placebo (31.1 [+ or -] 3.1%; P < 0.05). Coimmunoprecipitation experiments revealed increased amounts of calstabin-2 bound to the RyR2 channel in JTV519-treated WT mice. However, JTV519 did not show any of these beneficial effects in calstabin-[2.sup.-/-] mice with MI. Additionally, JTV519 improved skeletal muscle fatigue in WT and calstabin-[2.sup.-/-] mice with HF by increasing the binding of calstabin-1 to RyR1. The observation that treatment with JTV519 improved cardiac function in WT but not calstabin-[2.sup.-/-] mice indicates that calstabin-2 binding to RyR2 is required for the beneficial effects in failing hearts. We conclude that JTV519 may provide a specific way to treat the cardiac and skeletal muscle myopathy in HF by increasing calstabin binding to RyR. calcium | FKBP12.6 | myocardial infarction | contractility

Ventricular arrhythmias can cause sudden cardiac death (SCD) in patients with normal hearts and in those with underlying disease such as heart failure. In animals with heart failure and in patients with inherited forms of exercise-induced SCD, depletion of the channel-stabilizing protein calstabin2 (FKBP12.6) from the ryanodine receptor-calcium release channel (RyR2) complex causes an intracellular [Ca.sup.2+] leak that can trigger fatal cardiac arrhythmias. A derivative of 1,4-benzothiazepine (JTV519) increased the affinity of calstabin2 for RyR2, which stabilized the closed state of RyR2 and prevented the [Ca.sup.2+] leak that triggers arrhythmias. Thus, enhancing the binding of calstabin2 to RyR2 may be a therapeutic strategy for common ventricular arrhythmias., Ventricular tachyarrhythmias that cause SCD are often associated with common heart diseases, such as heart failure, but may also occur in individuals without structural heart disease (1). Treatment remains largely [...]

The type 1 ryanodine receptor (RyR1) on the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) is the major calcium ([Ca.sup.2+]) release channel required for skeletal muscle excitation--contraction (EC) coupling. RyR1 function is modulated by proteins that bind to its large cytoplasmic scaffold domain, including the FK506 binding protein (FKBP12) and PKA. PKA is activated during sympathetic nervous system (SNS) stimulation. We show that PKA phosphorylation of RyR1 at [Ser.sup.2843] activates the channel by releasing FKBP12. When FKB12 is bound to RyR1, it inhibits the channel by stabilizing its closed state. RyR1 in skeletal muscle from animals with heart failure (HF), a chronic hyperadrenergic state, were PKA hyperphosphorylated, depleted of FKBP12, and exhibited increased activity, suggesting that the channels are 'leaky.' RyR1 PKA hyperphosphorylation correlated with impaired SR [Ca.sup.2+] release and early fatigue in HF skeletal muscle. These findings identify a novel mechanism that regulates RyR1 function via PKA phosphorylation in response to SNS stimulation. PKA hyperphosphorylation of RyR1 may contribute to impaired skeletal muscle function in HF, suggesting that a generalized EC coupling myopathy may play a role in HF.

Sympathetic nervous system (SNS) regulation of cardiac action potential duration (APD) is mediated by β adrenergic receptor (β AR) activation, which increases the slow outward potassium ion current ([I.sub.KS]). Mutations in two human [I.sub.KS] channel subunits, hKCNQ1 and hKCNE1, prolong APD and cause inherited cardiac arrhythmias known as LQTS (long QT syndrome). We show that β AR modulation of [I.sub.KS] requires targeting of adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase (PKA) and protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) to hKCNQq through the targeting protein yotiao. Yotiao binds to hKCNQ1 by a leucine zipper motif, which is disrupted by an LQTS mutation (hKCNQ1-G589D). Identification of the hKCNQ1 macromolecular complex provides a mechanism for SNS modulation of cardiac APD through [I.sub.KS]., Cardiac function is regulated by the SNS; stimulation of β ARs increases heart rate and contractility and shortens APD (1). β AR-mediated regulation of [I.sub.KS] is particularly important because patients [...]

Regulation by protein kinase A (PKA) of phosphorylation binding of FKBP12.6 to the calcium release channel (ryanodine receptor) is discussed relative to defective regulation in human hearts in decline. RyR2 is PKA hyperphosphorylated and that brings defective channel function caused by increased sensitivity to Ca(super.2+)-induced activation.

Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) regulate the local concentration of 3',5' cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) within cells. It is shown that PDE4D gene inactivation in mice results in a progressive cardiomyopathy, accelerated heart failure after myocardial infarction and cardiac arrhythmias.

Research has been conducted on the common cause of sudden cardiac death, arrhythmias. The authors suggest that ryanodine receptor channels can trigger fatal cardial arrhythmias explaining catecholaminergic polymorphic venticular tachycardia.

Ryanodine receptors (RyRs), intracellular calcium release channels required for cardiac and skeletal muscle contraction, are macromolecular complexes that include kinases and phosphatases. Phosphorylation/dephosphorylation plays a key role in regulating the function of many ion channels, including RyRs. However, the mechanism by which kinases and phosphatases are targeted to ion channels is not well understood. We have identified a novel mechanism involved in the formation of ion channel macromolecular complexes: kinase and phosphatase targeting proteins binding to ion channels via leucine/isoleucine zipper (LZ) motifs. Activation of kinases and phosphatases bound to RyR2 via LZs regulates phosphorylation of the channel, and disruption of kinase binding via LZ motifs prevents phosphorylation of RyR2. Elucidation of this new role for LZs in ion channel macromolecular complexes now permits: (a) rapid mapping of kinase and phosphatase targeting protein binding sites on ion channels; (b) predicting which kinases and phosphatases are likely to regulate a given ion channel; (c) rapid identification of novel kinase and phosphatase targeting proteins; and (d) tools for dissecting the role of kinases and phosphatases as modulators of ion channel function. Key words: leucine zipper * ryanodine receptor * calcium channel * phosphorylation * phosphatase

Gaetano Santulli, [1] Gennaro Pagano, [2,3,4] Celestino Sardu, [5,6,7] Wenjun Xie, [1] Steven Reiken, [1] Salvatore Luca D'Ascia, [8] Michele Cannone, [9] Nicola Marziliano, [10,11] Bruno Trimarco, [12] Theresa A. [...]