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Given the influential role of organizational context for creativity, this study examines the cross-level effects of 2 prevalent contextual elements -- HR systems and relational climates -- on individual and team creativity. We have conducted a multilevel multi-source study through hierarchical linear modeling on a sample of 282 employees nested in 69 teams and 38 firms. The results show that the interplay hypotheses regarding potentially creativity-facilitating contexts were not supported. However, findings suggest that relational climates represent more effective positive predictors of creativity at both levels, above and beyond the effects of HR systems. Therefore, given their very prominent role in enacting the HR context and co-creating the climate in place, line managers should strive to consider individual and team creativity in relational settings and promote an appropriate work context categorized by relational climates. Treating creativity at 2 different levels (individual and team), and accounting for a cross-level interplay focused on the context of those important performance outcomes, have important theoretical implications for creativity and HRM research.

Competence-based education (CBE) is an innovation in (vocational) education aimed at improving students' competences. Little is known, however, about the processes leading to successful implementation of CBE and about its outcomes. This study investigates the effects that the level of CBE implementation has on student satisfaction (regarding the quality of education, guidance, and the development of interpersonal and general vocational skills) and to what extent CBE implementation mediates the relationship between teacher team learning activities and student satisfaction. To this end, data was gathered from 662 teachers belonging to 46 teacher teams in senior secondary vocational education in the Netherlands, and their students. Multilevel structural equation modelling revealed that teacher team learning was positively associated with the implementation of CBE. Furthermore, CBE had a positive effect on student satisfaction with quality of education, guidance, and development of interpersonal skills; however, no significant effect was found on student satisfaction with the development of general vocational skills. These results indicate that implementation of CBE has, to some degree, fulfilled its promise of better preparing students for their future workplace and that teacher team learning can support the further implementation of CBE.

This exploratory study uses the learning-network theory as a framework to investigate how managers and employees differ in their preference for the human resource development (HRD) activities of employees and in the functions they attribute to HRD. The research design was quantitative and cross-sectional. Data collection took place in six countries in Europe, Asia and North America. A new instrument was used, which views work improvement (WI), career development (CD) and personal development (PD) as three main functions of HRD that can serve managers and employees. Results show that managers and employees prefer different HRD activities for employees to undertake; respectively, formal courses and programs over job experiences, and vice versa. The two groups also differ in the scores they give to WI and PD as relevant functions that employee participation in HRD can provide. It is concluded, therefore, that differences between managers and employees in their views of the relevance of HRD activities should be taken into account in theory and practice when organizing employees' HRD activities.

Purpose: While factors that influence test takers' reactions to personality testing in selection contexts have been well researched, little empirical research evidence exists to determine whether these factors also apply to test takers' reactions in the context of management development (MD). The purpose of this study is, therefore, to explore what explains different test takers' reactions in the context of MD programs. Design/methodology/approach: A qualitative longitudinal approach with three phases of data collection was used, resulting in participatory workshop observations and 11 semi-structured interviews with participants from two different contexts. Data were analyzed using Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA). Findings: The findings show that test takers' reactions vary; some are more accepting, others are more neutral or rejecting, where perceived usefulness, clarity of purpose and perceived respectfulness are identified as distinguishing factors. Individuals also differ in terms of their awareness of assumptions and their perceived emotional safety, two emerging factors that are relevant in the MD context. Research limitations/implications: Data were collected during the MD workshops and three months after, but no records of immediate test takers' reactions were included, which could be an addition for future research. Practical implications: The findings of this study suggest that human resource development (HRD) professionals have significant impact on test takers' reactions when it comes to encouraging self-reflection and learning along personality tests. Originality/value: This study adds to existing research by offering insights into factors in MD settings where participants are concerned about aspects of fairness, learning and behavioral change.

Participation in professional development activities is important for teachers to continuously improve their knowledge and skills. However, teachers differ in their attitude towards learning activities. This paper examined how different goal orientation profiles are related to participation in professional development activities (acquiring information and asking feedback). To this end, we conducted latent profile analysis based on a sample of 984 teachers in vocational education. Five profiles were identified: diffuse (50.1%), moderate learning (12.3%), high avoidance (10.9%), performance oriented (15.9%) and success oriented (10.7%). Furthermore, means of acquiring information and asking feedback from teachers were compared across the profiles. Teachers with a success-oriented profile (high learning and performance approach goals) scored significantly higher while teachers with a high-avoidance profile scored significantly lower on asking for feedback and acquiring information. Exploration of background characteristics indicated that age, gender and work experience outside education were related to the goal orientation profiles. Our findings show that goal orientation profiles can be used to explain individual differences in teachers' propensity to engage in professional development activities.

This study explores how academics who expanded their teaching-only positions to include research view their (re)constructed academic identity. Participants worked in a higher professional education institution of applied research and teaching, comparable with so-called new universities. The aim is to increase our understanding of variations in academic identity and to be better able to support academics' 'role making' within and across different worlds of practice. Data from semi-structured interviews with 18 academics at a Dutch new university were analysed using a grounded theory approach. This revealed six well-rounded academic identities reflecting participants' personal scholarly objectives: the 'continuous learner', 'disciplinary expert', 'skilled researcher', 'evidence-based teacher', 'guardian of the research work process' and 'liaison officer'. The researcher role served to promote the overall development of participants' identities. The 'disciplinary expert' matured through participation in the academic world and research activities. Participants discovered what 'being' and 'becoming' a researcher in the new university might entail, and contributed to the professions' knowledge base. Participants learned to apply various research-based teaching approaches. As brokers, they linked research projects to practices in meaningful ways. The six identities embodied an emergent power in creating and preserving a complete academic profession. Participants' accounts showed tensions inherent in an extended role portfolio and constraints in 'role making' given inconsistencies between the university's espoused research mission and the one in use. These imply challenges for university managers in aligning policies and practices, and scaffolding academics' attempts to integrate their academic roles in different worlds of practice.

Purpose: Employees are increasingly expected to organize their own human resource development activities. To what extent and how exactly employees in various organizational contexts manage to shape their individual learning paths however remains largely unclear. The purpose of this present study is to explore, leaning on the empirical Learning-Network Theory (LNT) research and its findings, how employees in different occupations create learning paths that are attuned to their specific work context. Design/methodology/approach: The paper reviews 23 MSc theses based on 14 distinct data sets collected between 2005 and 2015, containing approximately 1,484 employees from some 45 organizations and across various professions. The teachers, nurses, postal, software, telecom, railway and logistics company employees were mostly based in the Netherlands. The analysis focuses on learning-path types and learning-path strategies found in the 23 studies. Findings: Motives, themes, activities, social contexts and facilities were found to be instrumental in explaining differences among individual learning paths. A total of 34 original learning-path types and strategies were found to cluster under 12 higher-order labels. Some of these were based on learning motive, some on learning theme, some on core learning activities, some on social learning context and a few on a combination of these elements. Overall, the socially oriented learning-path strategy was the most prevalent, as it was found among nurses, employees of software/postal/telecom, railway and logistics company employees, as well as teachers in two schools. Originality/value: The paper presents the first overview of empirical studies on employee learning path(s) (strategies). In addition, it strengthens the empirical basis of the LNT.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore how customer-facing professionals (CFPs) created learning paths to adapt to changing customer needs in a digital environment. Design/methodology/approach: Two groups of CFPs were created from a previous single-case study to examine the learning paths of the two groups. Both groups were digitally competent yet differed in their ability to adapt to the increased usage of digital technologies by their customers--adaptive or conservative CFPs. Research questions addressed perceived learning needs, learning strategies to meet needs and factors that helped or hindered success. Transcripts were coded based on the five elements of a learning path, described within the learning network theory (i.e. motives, learning themes, learning activities, social context and facilities), using the Dedoose coding software. Group findings were compared to identify similarities and differences in their learning path elements. Findings: CFPs learning path elements varied individually and between adaptive and conservative CFPs. Individually, they varied in learning themes: digital or traditional customer-facing competencies and learning activities such as learning from experience, self-directed learning and learning from others. Drive and ambition emerged as a learning motive for several CFPs in both groups. Although small samples, adaptive CFPs saw a need for digital competencies and engaged in self-directed learning (e.g. solving problems and using digital technologies), more so than conservative CFPs. A positive work environment (e.g. healthy relationships and support from others) was perceived as necessary for success for both groups. Originality/value: This study sheds light on how one's approach toward technology influences the creation of one's learning path. It shows the increased importance of digital competencies for CFPs in a digital world and how CFPs who embrace technology develop technological savviness, solve problems using online resources and experiment with technology and systems, strive for self-sufficiency and rely on self-directed learning.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to explore how and why personality tests are used in workplace training. This research paper is guided by three research questions that inquire about the role of external and internal stakeholders, the value of psychometric and practical considerations in test selection, and the purpose of personality test use in workplace training. Design/methodology/approach: This research paper uses multiple-case study analysis. Interviews, test reports, product flyers and email correspondence were collected and analyzed from publishers, associations, psychologists and human resource development (HRD) practitioners in Germany, the UK and The Netherlands between 2012 and 2016. Findings: Themes emerge around industry tensions among practitioners and professional associations, psychologists and non-psychologists. Ease of use is a more important factor than psychometrics in the decision-making process. Also, practitioners welcome publishers that offer free coaching support. In the process of using tests for development rather than assessment, re-labeling takes place when practitioners and publishers use positive terms for personality tests as tools for personal stocktaking and development. Research limitations/implications: Despite extensive data collection and analysis efforts, this study is limited by its focus on a relatively small number of country cases and stakeholders per case. Practical implications: By combining scientific evidence with practical application, stakeholders can take first steps toward more evidence-based HRD practice around personality testing in workplace training. Originality/value: Little academic literature exists on the use of personality testing in workplace training. Without a clear understanding of the use of personality testing outside personnel selection, the current practice of personality tests for developmental purposes could raise ethical concerns about the rights and responsibilities of test takers.

Purpose: Human resource development (HRD) is an important field within management. Developing employees is often regarded as an instrument to improve the internal labor market and support organizational change. Organizing HRD to these ends, however, is frequently a problematic affair, in terms of training effectiveness, participant motivation and added value. This study, which consists of two parts, aims to investigate the question of why this is the case. In this second part, two specific aspects of the learning-network theory are elaborated: multiple experiences in organizations forming the basis of employee learning and development, and different actor strategies for organizing HRD. Design/methodology/approach: The paper presents a conceptual framework to argue that one of the main reasons why organizing HRD is problematic lies in the limited and one-sided conceptualization of organizing HRD that is often used. Findings: Organizing HRD is mostly viewed as designing training courses and instruction sessions for employees; it is also predominantly understood as a tool of management. The paper proposes a network perspective on organizing HRD, which is better able to guide organizational actors than other approaches can, by taking into account a broader set of HRD practices and viewing employees (besides managers) as key stakeholders. Originality/value: The study argues that organizing HRD needs to take into account learning experiences that employees can gain from participating in work and career development as well (besides formal training); moreover, that employees' HRD strategies are at least as important as those used by line managers and HR practitioners. [For Part I, see EJ1142473.]

Purpose: Human resource development (HRD) is an important field within management. Developing employees is often regarded as an instrument to improve the internal labor market and support organizational change. Organizing HRD to these ends, however, is frequently a problematic affair, in terms of training effectiveness, participant motivation and added value. This study, which consists of two parts, aims to investigate the question of why this is the case. In this first part, the problem is stated and the backgrounds and basic tenets of learning-network theory are addressed. Design/methodology/approach: The paper first describes three approaches to organizing HRD, namely, as a training issue: customization by HRD practitioners; as a learning issue: didactic self-direction by employees; and as a strategic issue for employees and managers: micro-politics. The learning-network theory is then introduced as an integration of these three approaches. It presents a number of key organizational actors that organize four HRD processes, each operating strategically in their own way. Findings: Organizing HRD is mostly viewed as designing training courses and instruction sessions for employees; it is also predominantly understood as a tool of management. A network perspective on organizing HRD is better able to guide organizational actors than other approaches can. Originality/value: The study argues that organizing HRD needs to take into account learning experiences that employees can gain from participating in work and career development as well (besides formal training); moreover, that employees' HRD strategies are at least as important as those used by line managers and HR practitioners.

From all over the world there have been calls from governmental institutions to address a shortage of high quality teachers. As changing jobs generates new experiences, job mobility could be a way for teachers to adhere to the government's call to develop themselves into the teaching force needed. The research question of this study was: How do the experience with mobility and the attitude towards mobility of Dutch secondary school teachers shape their intentions to be mobile? A secondary analysis was conducted on data collected among 1261 respondents. Attitudes towards mobility were found to be linked to past experience with mobility and there is a strong relationship between the attitude towards mobility and the intention to be mobile. The control variables age, experience in teaching, and type of employment seem to have an effect as well. Implications for the teacher shortage issue are discussed.

The need for nurses to participate in continuing professional development (CPD) is growing to keep abreast of rapid changes in nursing care. Concurrently, the nursing workforce is growing older. Ageing leads to changes in biological, psychological, and social functioning. Little is known about the effects of age-related changes on nurses' CPD. A literature review was conducted to examine whether and how CPD differs across age groups. A framework with five perspectives on age was used in an attempt to distinguish factors contributing to these age differences. Given the limited research on this topic with respect to nurses, we also included studies of workers in general. The literature search revealed 27 relevant studies. In general, older workers appeared less likely to participate in CPD, when considering formal learning activities and late-career workers (older than 50/55 years). We found no clear age patterns for motivation to participate in CPD, for learning outcomes, and for participation in informal and non-formal learning activities. The study showed that more nuanced results are found when studies distinguish at least three age groups. By using different perspectives of age, a comprehensive overview of age-related factors in CPD was generated and gaps in current research were identified. Recommendations for further research are discussed, such as the need for research on whether the types of learning activities that nurses undertake change with ageing.

Purpose: The aim of this paper is to present an inventory of expert opinions on the factors that influence the participation of registered nurses in continuing professional development (CPD) activities. Design/methodology/approach: A Delphi study was conducted among 38 Dutch experts (nursing employers, managers, education institutions, and professional associations). Data collection comprised three rounds: experts completed two consecutive rounds of questionnaires and participated in a discussion meeting. Findings: Main influencing factors were: a CPD registration system, the attractiveness of the nursing profession, nurses' identification with the nursing profession, opportunities for workplace learning, the line manager as role model, and attractive education programs. Research limitations/implications: Being part of a larger study, for the present paper only nursing experts were asked their opinion about shaping CPD for nurses. Further research should bring in the views of nurses themselves and investigate how the wider environment influences CPD participation. Practical implications: As all stakeholders were found to have their own roles in the CPD process, collaboration among employers, managers, education institutions, and professional associations will be crucial to create a conducive learning climate for nurses. HRD practitioners in healthcare can use the study findings to advise hospitals about implementing the right conditions to support CPD for nurses. Originality/value: A qualitative study using the Delphi method to discover factors influencing CPD in nursing had not been conducted before. Unlike many studies looking essentially at formal education, the present paper takes into account workplace learning among nurses as well. (Contains 1 table.)

Purpose: The purpose of this article is to help schools for vocational education determine teachers' continuing professional development needs associated with implementing competence-based education programs, so that these schools can develop better attuned HR policies. It investigates which elements from the cognitive apprenticeship model and from the acquisition and participation metaphors can be identified in the individual action theories of their teachers. Design/methodology/approach: A case study was conducted in one school for vocational education, where 12 teachers engaged in an innovation project around the development of a new competence-based education program for pupils. They participated in concept mapping, cued interviews (based on video recordings), semi-structured interviews, and a joint feedback session. These four sources were used for an in-depth content analysis of teachers' action theories. Findings: No distinctive, crystallized action theories about competence-based vocational education emerged at the individual teacher level; let alone individual teachers' action theories well in line with the two normative frameworks on competence-based education. The case study shows the struggle that individual teachers are going through to get their every-day teaching repertoire more in line with new ideas on competence-based education. Research limitations/implications: Only qualitative data are gathered, in one school, representing one school type, in one country only, limiting the statistical generalizability of the results. Not all respondents are able to participate in all four data sources. Practical implications: Schools should develop HR policies that offer teachers CPD activities in the crucial area of competence-based education; the frameworks presented in the study can be used to this end, by teacher educators as well as by HRD professionals interested in combining training programs with informal employee learning. Originality/value: The study draws on literature from various disciplines (especially educational psychology and HRD), which traditionally have remained mostly separate. It combines insights from four separate data sources. (Contains 4 tables.)

Dutch prevocational secondary schools are reforming their educational programmes to make them more competence-based. This reform has substantial implications for the roles played by teachers. Yet, little empirical research has been conducted on teachers' processes of competence development in vocational settings. This study explores teachers' individual action theories regarding the introduction of competence-based prevocational secondary education. The cognitive apprenticeship model provides a conceptual framework for addressing this issue. The research questions addressed here are: How do teachers value elements of the cognitive apprenticeship model in designing and delivering competence-based prevocational secondary education?, and, What individual action theories do teachers have regarding competence-based prevocational secondary education? The study was designed in two phases. In the qualitative phase, interviews and concept map techniques were used, while the quantitative phase employed a questionnaire. Teachers valued elements of the cognitive apprenticeship model differently, and suggested two additional features: a custom-made educational approach and the professionalisation of teachers. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

The authors describe research aimed at developing a more comprehensive framework for project-based learning in work contexts. This grows out of a cross-cultural reanalysis of data from two previous studies using two different frameworks: actor-centered learning network theory and a critical pragmatist lens on action reflection learning. Findings are based on a cross analysis of a subset of one another's data sets using the authors' respective original frameworks, thus intending to build reflexivity into the latter. The study identifies strengths and weaknesses of each framework and discusses a more comprehensive framework that takes into account both individual and organizational learning at a time when learning in work contexts is increasingly driven by the learner and integrated with work.

Informal workplace trainers help employees learn what they need to know and do in order to get their job done. Little is known about the actions of informal workplace trainers, who may be colleagues or supervisors. This study provides an empirical basis for actions undertaken by informal workplace trainers. A total of 350 Australian enterprises were interviewed by telephone. Actions of informal workplace trainers were measured using a list of thirty-two statements based on prior qualitative research. Three factors were found to describe core role dimensions: support, structure, and performance. Also, three types of informal workplace trainer appeared: some had a passive indifferent role conception, a considerable number had a restricted role conception, and many had a broad, active role conception. Relationships of role dimensions and role conceptions with organizational context variables and characteristics of informal workplace trainers were tested as well. The study proposes several directions for further research.

Purpose: To investigate how modern or traditional are the current roles of South Australian HRD practitioners in the context of present-day work organisations. Also, how are their roles related to the organisational context in which they operate? Design/methodology/approach: The study is a replication of two prior qualitative empirical studies conducted in the UK and The Netherlands. Learning-Network Theory was used to analyse qualitatively 18 in-depth interviews with South Australian HRD practitioners. Four phases were distinguished in the analysis of interview data, namely exploration, specification, reduction, and integration. Findings: HRD practitioner roles are still rather traditional in nature, focusing, for example, on training needs analysis and delivery. Furthermore, roles of HRD practitioners are related to the work type in their organisation. Those dealing with team-based work were found to have the least traditional tasks, emphasising the continuation of learning, evaluation and acting as a resource to the organisation. Research limitations/implications: Qualitative small sample study limits generalisation. Also, interviews may yield respondents' espoused theories rather than those in use. Further research should use larger, more diverse samples and include more direct ways of data collection (e.g. observation). Practical implications: The question arises whether HRD practice is too conservative or HRD theory and professional ideals are too progressive, if a huge gap between the two continues to come to the fore. Originality/value: Besides corroborating earlier research conducted elsewhere, this study developed a more fully elaborated and more structured interview guideline based on Learning-Network Theory. (Contains 4 tables.)

The broad aims of this study are to gain insight into employees' on-the-job learning activities to help them improve their on-the-job learning. The authors define on-the-job learning styles and operationalize the concept to include both mental and overt learning styles and both interpersonal and intrapersonal learning styles. Organizations and employees can benefit from an awareness of employees' on-the-job learning styles, by developing an adaptive flexibility in the use of on-the-job learning strategies. (Contains 5 figures and 1 table.)

A method for employees to conduct group learning projects is described, including development of three phases (orientation, learning, continuation) and four project types (liberal-contractual, vertical-regulated, horizontal-organic, and external-collegial). (Contains 37 references.) (SK)

Dutch human resource professionals (n=20) were interviewed about the congruence of training strategies with theory. They use a variety of strategies to organize learning at orientation, learning/optimizing, and continuation phases. Strategies appear aligned with theories of liberal, vertical, and horizontal learning. Problems included resistance to change and transfer of learning. (Contains 22 references.) (SK)

Interviews with 96 participants indicated that employees, managers, and human-resource-development staff use different strategies to organize work-related learning networks. Choice of strategy (extended training, directed reflection, reflective innovation) was partially related to type of work (machine-bureaucratic, entrepreneurial, professional). (SK)

Describes phases of project-based learning (PBL): diagnosis, data feedback, and organization of learning projects. Compares PBL to other action-based learning methods. Provides four examples of PBL, underpinned by learning network theory. (SK)

Project-based learning is a better method than formal education for solving work-related problems. A learning network approach makes the relationship between competence and work explicit and provides a typology of learning projects--liberal, vertical, horizontal, and external--depending on who organizes projects and for what purposes. (SK)