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• Identification of early distress may be useful in prevention of suicide transmission in families. • Children of mothers who have a suicide risk history are considered at-risk. • Maternal history of suicidal thoughts and behaviors predicts preschooler aggression. Maternal history of suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs) has been identified as a robust risk factor for offspring emotional and behavioral problems, including risk for offspring STBs. The impact of maternal history of STBs has been well-documented in adolescent and young adult samples, with emerging research highlighting the need to examine early clinical correlates of risk in young children, prior to the emergence of STBs. In an extension of prior work, the current study examined associations between maternal history of STBs and previously identified emotional and behavioral correlates of STBs (negative affect, internalizing problems, attention problems, aggressive behavior) in young children. These associations were examined in a mother-preschooler sample (n = 158, mean preschooler age =41.52 months) with approximately half of mothers endorsing a history of STBs and 20 % of the sample scoring at the threshold that indicates suicide risk. In multivariate models, maternal history of STBs was significantly associated with preschooler aggressive behavior, assessed via mother- (β=0.19) and teacher-report (β=0.21), as well as mother-reported negative affect (β=0.22). Results document a link between maternal history of STBs and increased risk for heightened negative affect and aggressive behavior at home and school during the sensitive preschool period. Findings are discussed within the context of enhancing models of intergenerational transmission suicide risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although children of mothers who have elevated borderline personality disorder (BPD) features are a high-risk group, there remains little research examining developmental mechanisms that place these offspring at risk for emerging psychopathology. The current study included 68 mother–preschooler dyads, in which mothers with elevated BPD features were oversampled. Preschoolers (aged 3 and 4 years) completed a battery of executive functioning (EF) and theory of mind (ToM) measures. Accounting for several covariates (family income, maternal depression, child age, and child cognitive ability), maternal BPD features were associated with preschoolers' poorer EF and, although not associated with the overall ToM measure, were associated with affect perspective taking, a component of ToM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study tested child characteristics (temperamental executive control and negative reactivity) and maternal characteristics (parenting behaviors and maternal depressive symptoms) as predictors of a mother's emotion-related socialization behaviors (ERSBs). Further, parenting behaviors and ERSBs were examined as predictors of children's emotion knowledge, social competence, and adjustment problems. ERSBs and children's emotion knowledge were tested as mediators of the effects of child and parent characteristics on adjustment. A community sample (N = 306) of mothers and children (36–40 months at T1) were assessed 4 times, once every 9 months, and assessments included maternal reports of depressive symptoms, observed temperament, observational ratings of general parenting at T1, maternal report of ERSBs at T1 & T2, behavioral measures of emotion knowledge at T3, and teacher ratings of children's adjustment at T4. There were no predictors of ERSBs above prior levels. Higher executive control and lower maternal depressive symptoms predicted greater child emotion knowledge, highlighting the roles of maternal and child contributors to emotion knowledge. Greater emotion knowledge and positive affective quality in parenting predicted children's adjustment, with emotion knowledge mediating the effects of executive control on children's adjustment. In addition, lower levels of maternal supportive ERSBs predicted greater adjustment problems. This study highlights the roles of key variables in Eisenberg, Cumberland, and Spinrad's (1998) heuristic model of emotion socialization and the importance of emotion socialization and emotion knowledge in children's adjustment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract A core tenet of Linehan's biosocial theory (1993) is that borderline personality disorder (BPD) emerges as a result of transactions between emotional vulnerability and an invalidating environment. Invalidation has become a popular term in the literature, but there is a lack of uniformity in its operationalization and measurement, particularly as applied to invalidating parenting practices that are non-abusive. This systematic review of 77 empirical studies examined the measurement and operationalization of parental invalidation in the BPD literature and determined the extent to which measurements used converge with Linehan's original model. This review provides a description of methodological design features of the literature and presents the percent of studies that measured four key components of invalidation—inaccuracy, misattribution, discouragement of negative emotions, and oversimplification of problem solving. Limitations of the literature, including a dearth of studies which include measurements that align with Linehan's model, and recommendations for future research are discussed in an attempt to encourage greater scientific rigor in the measurement of invalidation and elucidate the role of invalidation in the development of BPD. Highlights • Linehan's biosocial theory posits the invalidating environment is at the core of the development of borderline personality disorder (BPD). • This systematic review identified studies that measured the invalidating environment or poor parenting and BPD outcomes to determine if how the field measures the invalidating environment aligns with Linehan's model. • Of the 77 studies identified, 47 different measures exist to assess poor parenting in relation to BPD. • Greater uniformity is needed about how to measure poor parenting or the invalidating environment in order for the field to quantify the extent to which these types of specific factors contribute to BPD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined state-trait models of diurnal cortisol (morning level and diurnal slope), and whether income, cumulative risk and parenting behaviors predicted variance in trait and state levels of cortisol. The sample of 306 mothers and their preschool children included 29% families at or near poverty, 27% families below the median income, and the remaining families at middle and upper income. Diurnal cortisol, income, cumulative risk, and parenting were measured at 4 time points, once every 9 months, starting when children were 36–40 months. State-trait models fit the data, suggesting significant state but not trait variance in cortisol. Low income and cumulative risk were related to trait levels of diurnal cortisol with little evidence of time-varying or state effects. Stable levels of parenting predicted trait levels of diurnal cortisol and time-varying levels of parenting predicted time-varying state levels of diurnal cortisol. Findings highlight the allostatic process of adaptation to risk as well as time-specific reactivity to variability in experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Etiological models propose that a biological vulnerability to emotional reactivity plays an important role in the development of borderline personality disorder (BPD). However, the physiological and phenomenological components of emotional reactivity that predict the course of BPD symptoms in adolescence are poorly understood. This prospective study examines pupillary and affective responses to maternal feedback as predictors of BPD symptom development in adolescent girls over 18 months. Fifty-seven 16-year-old girls completed a laboratory task in which they heard recorded clips of their own mothers making critical or praising statements about them, as well as neutral statements that did not pertain to them. Changes in girls' pupil dilation and subjective affect were assessed throughout the task. The results demonstrated that greater pupillary response to maternal criticism predicted increases in BPDsymptoms over time. In addition, greater pupillaryand positive affective responses to maternal praisewere associatedwith higherBPDsymptoms at age 16 and faster decreases in BPD symptoms over time, but only among girls who heard clips that were rated by independent observers as less praising. The results suggest that emotional reactivity can serve as either a risk or a protective factor depending on context, with differential effects of reactivity to criticism versus praise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to examine whether parenting moderated the association between maternal depressive symptoms and initial levels and growth of preadolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms. This study used a community sample of preadolescent children (N = 214; 8–12 years old at Time 1), measuring maternal depressive symptoms and parenting at Time 1, and preadolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms at each year for 3 years. After modeling latent growth curves of internalizing and externalizing symptoms, growth factors were conditioned on maternal depressive symptoms, positive (acceptance and consistent discipline) and negative (rejection and physical punishment) parenting, and the interactions of depression and parenting. Maternal rejection moderated the relation of maternal depression with internalizing symptoms, such that high rejection exacerbated the effects of maternal depressive symptoms on initial levels of preadolescent internalizing problems. There were no significant interactions predicting externalizing problems. The findings highlight how specific parenting behaviors may alter the way in which maternal depressive symptoms confer risk for behavior problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, major gains toward understanding the emergence of borderline personality disorder (BPD) pathology, which is typically first noted during adolescence, have been made. Simultaneously, a profound shift has occurred in the adult personality pathology literature, in which empirical evidence rebuts the idea that personality disorders (PDs) are intractable disorders that do not develop or otherwise change over time, and therefore cannot be treated. The present study addresses a gap in our understanding of within-person change in BPD symptoms across adolescence and contributes to the limited literature on outcomes associated with adolescent BPD. Using an at-risk community sample of girls ( N = 2,450), the authors used bivariate latent growth curve models to analyze the codevelopment of BPD symptoms with eight domains of psychosocial functioning (e.g., academic achievement, social skills, sexual behavior) across ages 14-17. Findings revealed moderate to strong effect sizes for the associations between BPD symptoms and every domain of psychosocial functioning, suggesting that the development of BPD was coupled with poorer outcomes across development. Controlling for depression and conduct disorder features revealed unique associations between BPD and self-perception, social skills, and sexual behavior. These results highlight the increased need for extending advancements in the adult PD literature to research on PDs in adolescence, and for greater recognition of adolescent BPD in clinical settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental risk predicts disrupted basal cortisol levels in preschool children. However, little is known about the stability or variability of diurnal cortisol morning levels or slope patterns over time in young children. This study used latent profile analysis to identify patterns of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis activity during the preschool period. Using a community sample (N = 306), this study measured income, cumulative risk, and children's diurnal cortisol (morning level and slope) four times across 2.5 years, starting when children were 36 months old. Latent profile analysis profiles indicated that there were predominantly stable patterns of diurnal cortisol level and slope over time and that these patterns were predicted by income and cumulative risk. In addition, there were curvilinear relations of income and cumulative risk to profiles of low morning cortisol level and flattened diurnal slope across time, suggesting that both lower and higher levels of income and cumulative risk were associated with a stress-sensitive physiological system. Overall, this study provides initial evidence for the role of environmental risk in predicting lower, flattened basal cortisol patterns that remain stable over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic has been recognized to provide rare insight to advance the scientific understanding of early life adversity, such as material hardship. During the COVID-19 pandemic, material hardship (i.e., difficulty paying for basic needs) in families of young children has had detrimental effects on caregivers' and children's well-being. In addition to the degree of material hardship, the week-to-week and month-to-month unpredictability of hardship status may add to families' stress and worsen well-being. This study examined the magnitude of and mechanisms underlying the effects of material hardship level and unpredictability on the well-being of U.S. households with young children during the pandemic. Data were drawn from the RAPID project, a large ongoing national study that used weekly/biweekly online surveys to investigate the pandemic impact on U.S. households with young children. The current study leveraged data from 4621 families who provided at least three responses between April 2020 and October 2021. Findings indicated that racial/ethnic minorities and lower-income households experienced higher levels of material hardship and unpredictability during the pandemic, compared to their White or higher-income counterparts. Levels of pandemic-related material hardship and hardship unpredictability were both significantly associated with worsened well-being among caregivers and children. Finally, the effects of hardship level and unpredictability on well-being outcomes were partially mediated through disrupted family routines. The findings from this study highlight that ensuring equal and adequate access to financial resources, as well as promoting financial stability for households with young children are both critical for maintaining functional family dynamics and promoting caregivers' and children's optimal well-being. • Material hardship level is negatively linked to caregiver and child well-being. • Hardship unpredictability is also negatively associated with well-being outcomes. • Disrupted family routine underlies the connections between hardship and well-being. • Minorities and low-SES families report higher levels of hardship & unpredictability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maternal borderline personality disorder (BPD) symptoms are associated with poorer parenting. However, most studies conducted are with young children. In the current study, the authors examined associations between maternal BPD symptoms and parenting in an urban community sample of 15-to 17-year-old girls ( n = 1,598) and their biological mothers. Additionally, the authors tested the impact of adolescent temperament on these associations. Mothers reported on their own psychopathology and their daughters' temperament. Adolescent girls reported on mothers' parenting methods in terms of psychological and behavioral control. Results demonstrated that maternal BPD symptoms were associated with aspects of psychological and behavioral control, even after controlling for maternal depression and alcohol use severity. After examining specific BPD components that may account for these associations, the authors found that affective/behavioral dysregulation, but not interpersonal dysregulation or identity disturbance, uniquely accounted for parenting. Adolescent temperament did not moderate these associations. BPD symptoms, particularly affective/behavioral dysregulation, are important targets when conducting parenting interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maternal borderline personality disorder (BPD) symptoms are associated with poorer parenting. However, most studies conducted are with young children. In the current study, the authors examined associations between maternal BPD symptoms and parenting in an urban community sample of 15-to 17-year-old girls ( n = 1,598) and their biological mothers. Additionally, the authors tested the impact of adolescent temperament on these associations. Mothers reported on their own psychopathology and their daughters' temperament. Adolescent girls reported on mothers' parenting methods in terms of psychological and behavioral control. Results demonstrated that maternal BPD symptoms were associated with aspects of psychological and behavioral control, even after controlling for maternal depression and alcohol use severity. After examining specific BPD components that may account for these associations, the authors found that affective/behavioral dysregulation, but not interpersonal dysregulation or identity disturbance, uniquely accounted for parenting. Adolescent temperament did not moderate these associations. BPD symptoms, particularly affective/behavioral dysregulation, are important targets when conducting parenting interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Temperament, appraisal, and coping are known to underlie emotion regulation, yet less is known about how these processes relate to each other across time. We examined temperamental fear, frustration, effortful control, and impulsivity, positive and threat appraisals, and active and avoidant coping as processes underpinning the emotion regulation of pre-adolescent children managing stressful events. Appraisal and coping styles were tested as mediators of the longitudinal effects of temperamental emotionality and self-regulation on adjustment using a community sample ( N = 316) of preadolescent children (8-12 years at T1) studied across 1 year. High threat appraisals were concurrently related to high fear and impulsivity, whereas effortful control predicted relative decreases in threat appraisal. High fear was concurrently related to high positive appraisal, and impulsivity predicted increases in positive appraisal. Fear was concurrently related to greater avoidant coping, and impulsivity predicted increases in avoidance. Frustration predicted decreases in active coping. These findings suggest temperament, or dispositional aspects of reactivity and regulation, relates to concurrent appraisal and coping processes, and additionally predicts change in these processes. Significant indirect effects indicated that appraisal and coping mediated the effects of temperament on adjustment. Threat appraisal mediated the effects of fear and effortful control on internalising and externalising problems, and avoidant coping mediated the effect of impulsivity on internalising problems. These mediated effects suggest that one pathway through which temperament influences adjustment is pre-adolescents' appraisal and coping. Findings highlight temperament, appraisal, and coping as emotion regulation processes relevant to children's adjustment in response to stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Independently, maternal depression and maternal history of childhood abuse confer risk for impaired parenting. These associations may be compounded when depressed mothers with histories of childhood abuse are faced with the challenge of parenting offspring who themselves struggle with mental health problems. This study examined the relationships among maternal history of childhood abuse, maternal depression, and parenting style in the context of parenting a psychiatrically ill child, with an emphasis on examining maternal emotional abuse and neglect. We hypothesized that maternal childhood emotional abuse would be associated with maladaptive parenting strategies (lower levels of maternal acceptance and higher levels of psychological control), independent of maternal depression severity and other psychosocial risk factors. Method Ninety-five mother-child dyads (children ages 7-18) were recruited from child mental health centers where children were receiving treatment for at least one internalizing disorder. Participating mothers met DSM-IV criteria for major depressive disorder. Mothers reported on their own childhood abuse histories and children reported on their mothers' parenting. Results Regression analyses demonstrated that maternal childhood emotional abuse was associated with child reports of lower maternal acceptance and greater psychological control, controlling for maternal depression severity, and other psychosocial risk factors. Conclusions When treating psychiatrically ill children, it is important for a child's clinician to consider mothers' childhood abuse histories in addition to their history of depression. These mothers appear to have additional barriers to effective parenting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the relation of low income and poverty to cortisol levels, and tested potential pathways from low income to disruptions in cortisol through cumulative family risk and parenting. The sample of 306 mothers and their preschool children included 29 % families at or near poverty, 27 % families below the median income, and the remaining families at middle and upper income. Lower income was related to lower morning cortisol levels, and cumulative risk predicted a flatter diurnal slope, with a significant indirect effect through maternal negativity, suggesting that parenting practices might mediate an allostatic effect on stress physiology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We investigated the associations of appraisal and coping styles with emotion regulation in a community sample of preadolescents (N =196, 9–12years of age), with appraisal, coping styles, and emotion regulation measured at a single time point. In a previous study, we identified five frustration and four anxiety emotion regulation profiles based on children’s physiological, behavioral, and self-reported reactions to emotion-eliciting tasks. In this study, preadolescents’ self-reported appraisal and coping styles were associated with those emotion regulation profiles. Overall, findings revealed that children who were more effective at regulating their emotions during the emotion-eliciting tasks had higher levels of positive appraisal and active coping when dealing with their own problems. Conversely, children who regulated their emotions less effectively had higher levels of threat appraisal and avoidant coping. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The longitudinal relations of emotion regulation profiles to temperament and adjustment in a community sample of preadolescents ( N = 196, 8-11 years at Time 1) were investigated using person-oriented latent profile analysis (LPA). Temperament, emotion regulation, and adjustment were measured at 3 different time points, with each time point occurring 1 year apart. LPA identified 5 frustration and 4 anxiety regulation profiles based on children's physiological, behavioral, and self-reported reactions to emotion-eliciting tasks. The relation of effortful control to conduct problems was mediated by frustration regulation profiles, as was the relation of effortful control to depression. Anxiety regulation profiles did not mediate relations between temperament and adjustment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Emotion regulation (ER) deficits are an underlying mechanism in many disorders. • We examined DBT as a transdiagnostic treatment for common mental health disorders. • 12 RCTs of DBT for mental health disorders, and no comorbid personality disorder, were included. • DBT led to ER improvements and significant effects for depression, eating disorders and anxiety. • DBT shows potential as a transdiagnostic treatment for common mental health disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children of parents with emotion regulation (ER) difficulties may be at heightened risk for internalizing and externalizing problems, and maternal invalidation may explain this association. The current study used a cross-informant design to test the indirect effect of clinician-rated maternal ER difficulties on teacher-reported internalizing and externalizing problems through maternal invalidation. This risk pathway was tested in two groups of preschoolers: children of mothers with ER difficulties and children of mothers without ER difficulties (healthy controls; HC). Participants were 85 mothers (Mage =33.30 years; 36% racial/ethnic minoritized status) and their children (Mage =4234 months; 47% racial/ethnic minoritized status). Maternal ER difficulties had a significant indirect effect on child internalizing problems and externalizing problems, specifically aggressive behavior, through maternal invalidation. Specifically, mothers with ER difficulties reported more maternal invalidation, and their children exhibited more internalizing problems and aggressive behavior in a preschool/daycare setting, pointing to multiple avenues for prevention and intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the high rates of co-occurrence of psychopathology within families, it is important to identify and characterize interventions that simultaneously reduce both parent and child symptoms, and improve parenting quality. This is needed as intervention development is increasingly moving toward integrated interventions that target some combination of parent and child mental health, and parenting behavior. Even so, much remains unknown regarding which treatment components provide maximum benefit for parent symptoms, child symptoms, and parenting behavior. This systematic review identified and characterized psychotherapeutic interventions that report improvements in each of three outcomes: parent symptoms, child symptoms and parenting behavior. Fifty-six unique interventions were eligible for review, of which 25 reported improvements in all three outcomes. All 25 of these interventions directly intervened on parenting behavior, often as the sole target of the intervention. Few interventions improved all three outcomes in samples in which parents, children or both met clinical-level thresholds of psychopathology. Additional research is needed to better understand the bi-directional and transactional influences of treatment on family members, and to better inform the development of interventions for dually disordered parent-child dyads across a range of diagnostic profiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parental chronic pain is associated with adverse outcomes in children, but the mechanisms of transmission are largely untested. Mothers with chronic pain (N = 400, Mage = 40.3 years, 90.5% White) and their children (Mage = 10.33 years, 83.3% White, 50.2% female) were recruited in 2016–2018 to test longitudinal pathways of risk transmission from maternal chronic pain to children's psychological symptoms, examining roles of parenting, maternal depression, and child distress tolerance. Maternal pain was associated with positive (β = .28) and pain‐specific (β = .10) parenting behaviors. Maternal depression was associated with lower child distress tolerance (β = −.03), which was associated with greater child psychological symptoms (β = −.62). Parenting and maternal pain were not prospectively associated with child outcomes. When considering the dual‐generational impacts of chronic pain, physical and psychological functioning should be examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conversational turn‐taking is a complex communicative skill that requires both linguistic and executive functioning (EF) skills, including processing input while simultaneously forming and inhibiting responses until one's turn. Adult‐child turn‐taking predicts children's linguistic, cognitive, and socioemotional development. However, little is understood about how disruptions to temporal contingency in turn‐taking, such as interruptions and overlapping speech, relate to cognitive outcomes, and how these relationships may vary across developmental contexts. In a longitudinal sample of 275 socioeconomically diverse mother‐child dyads (children 50% male, 65% White), we conducted pre‐registered examinations of whether the frequency of dyads' conversational disruption during free play when children were 3 years old related to children's executive functioning (EF; 9 months later), self‐regulation skills (18 months later), and externalizing psychopathology in early adolescence (age 10–12 years). Contrary to hypotheses, more conversational disruptions significantly predicted higher inhibition skills, controlling for sex, age, income‐to‐needs (ITN), and language ability. Results were driven by maternal disruptions of the child's speech, and could not be explained by measures of overall talkativeness or interactiveness. Exploratory analyses revealed that ITN moderated these relationships, such that the positive effect of disruptions on inhibition was strongest for children from lower ITN backgrounds. We discuss how adult‐driven "cooperative overlap" may serve as a form of engaged participation that supports cognition and behavior in certain cultural contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the worldwide prevalence of maternal depression has risen sharply; it is now estimated that one quarter of mothers experience clinically significant depression symptoms. Exposure to maternal depression during early childhood increases the risk for the development of childhood mental illness (MI) in offspring, with altered parenting practices mediating the association between maternal depression and child outcomes. Dual-generation interventions, which aim to simultaneously treat parent and child mental health, show promise for improving outcomes for mothers with depression and their young children. The Building Regulation in Dual Generations (BRIDGE) program combines Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) and parenting skills training to concurrently treat maternal depression and improve parenting practices. In pilot within-group studies, BRIDGE has led to large reductions in maternal depression and child MI symptoms. The aim of the current study is to evaluate the efficacy of BRIDGE in reducing maternal depression and child MI symptoms (primary outcomes) as well as parenting stress and harsh parenting (secondary outcomes). Methods: A three-armed randomized control trial with equal group sizes will be conducted to compare the efficacy of (1) BRIDGE (DBT + parenting skills), (2) DBT skills training, and (3) services-as-usual. Participants (n = 180) will be mothers of 3- to 5-year-old children who report elevated depression symptoms. Those randomized to BRIDGE or DBT skills training will complete a 16-week group therapy intervention. Assessments will be administered at pre-intervention(T1) post-intervention (T2), and 6-month follow-up (T3). Discussion: Dual-generation programs offer an innovative approach to prevent the intergenerational transmission of mental illness. The current study will add to the evidence base for BRIDGE by comparing it to a stand-alone mental health intervention and a services-as-usual group. These comparisons will provide valuable information on the relative efficacy of including parenting support in a mental health intervention for parents. The results will contribute to our understanding of how maternal depression affects children's development and how intervening at both a mental health and parenting level may affect child and family outcomes. Trial registration: Name of registry: Clinical Trials Protocol Registration and Results System; trial registration number: NCT05959538; date of registry: July 24, 2023; available: https://classic.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05959538 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Aggression is a transdiagnostic indicator of risk and represents one of the most common reasons children are referred for mental health treatment. Theory and research highlight the impact of maternal invalidation on child aggression and suggest that its influence may vary based on differences in child physiological reactivity. Moreover, the interaction between these risk factors may be particularly pronounced among children of mothers with emotion regulation (ER) difficulties. The current study examined the independent and interactive effects of maternal invalidation and child physiological reactivity to frustration on teacher-reported aggression in an at-risk sample of preschool children. Method: Participants included 77 mothers (M age = 33.17 years, s.d. = 4.83; 35% racial/ethnic minority) and their children (M age = 42.48 months; s.d. = 3.78; 56% female; 47% racial/ethnic minority). Groups of mothers with and without clinician-rated ER difficulties reported on maternal invalidation, and child respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) was assessed continuously during a frustration task as an indicator of physiological reactivity. Teachers or daycare providers reported on child aggression. Results: Results demonstrated positive associations between maternal ER difficulties and both maternal invalidation and child RSA reactivity to frustration. As expected, the interaction between maternal invalidation and child RSA reactivity was significant, such that higher maternal invalidation and greater child RSA reactivity to frustration predicted more aggression in a daycare or preschool setting. Importantly, this effect was demonstrated while controlling for demographic covariates and baseline RSA. Conclusions: Findings are in line with diathesis–stress and biosocial models of risk and point to multiple targets for prevention and early intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the worldwide prevalence of maternal depression has risen sharply; it is now estimated that one quarter of mothers experience clinically significant depression symptoms. Exposure to maternal depression during early childhood increases the risk for the development of childhood mental illness (MI) in offspring, with altered parenting practices mediating the association between maternal depression and child outcomes. Dual-generation interventions, which aim to simultaneously treat parent and child mental health, show promise for improving outcomes for mothers with depression and their young children. The Building Regulation in Dual Generations (BRIDGE) program combines Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) and parenting skills training to concurrently treat maternal depression and improve parenting practices. In pilot within-group studies, BRIDGE has led to large reductions in maternal depression and child MI symptoms. The aim of the current study is to evaluate the efficacy of BRIDGE in reducing maternal depression and child MI symptoms (primary outcomes) as well as parenting stress and harsh parenting (secondary outcomes). Methods: A three-armed randomized control trial with equal group sizes will be conducted to compare the efficacy of (1) BRIDGE (DBT + parenting skills), (2) DBT skills training, and (3) services-as-usual. Participants (n = 180) will be mothers of 3- to 5-year-old children who report elevated depression symptoms. Those randomized to BRIDGE or DBT skills training will complete a 16-week group therapy intervention. Assessments will be administered at pre-intervention(T1) post-intervention (T2), and 6-month follow-up (T3). Discussion: Dual-generation programs offer an innovative approach to prevent the intergenerational transmission of mental illness. The current study will add to the evidence base for BRIDGE by comparing it to a stand-alone mental health intervention and a services-as-usual group. These comparisons will provide valuable information on the relative efficacy of including parenting support in a mental health intervention for parents. The results will contribute to our understanding of how maternal depression affects children's development and how intervening at both a mental health and parenting level may affect child and family outcomes. Trial registration: Name of registry: Clinical Trials Protocol Registration and Results System; trial registration number: NCT05959538; date of registry: July 24, 2023; available: https://classic.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05959538 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Warm caregiving is associated with concurrent hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis function, although the persistence of this association over time is less established. Using longitudinal and intervention studies, this meta-analysis examined the enduring association of parental warmth (measured when children were ages < 1 through 15 years) with basal cortisol, reactivity and recovery (measured when children were ages < 1 through 25 years; k = 38; N = 6,608). These studies demonstrate no overall associations between parenting and children's HPA axis; instead there are small associations that vary based on moderators such as socioeconomic status, developmental stage, study design and stressor type, though many moderators are confounded. This first wave of studies indicates that the enduring association between parenting and cortisol is small and only understood in the context of other factors, and directly informs four sets of methodological and theoretical recommendations to strengthen this literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using both variable- and person-centered approaches, this study examined the role of temperament in relation to children’s vulnerable or resilient responses to cumulative risk. Observed reactivity and regulation dimensions of temperament were tested as mediating and moderating the relation between family cumulative risk and teacher-reported adjustment problems in a sample of 259 preschool-age children. Further, latent profile analyses were used to examine whether profiles of temperament, accounting for multiple characteristics simultaneously, provided additional information about the role of temperament in children’s responses to risk. Results support a diathesis-stress model in which high frustration, low fear, and low delay ability confer particular vulnerability for children in high-risk contexts. Benefits of multiple approaches are highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Few studies have examined protective maternal factors that may mitigate the intergenerational transmission of risk of maternal emotion regulation difficulties on child outcomes. The current study tested whether supportive maternal emotion socialization moderated the association between maternal emotion regulation difficulties and child emotion regulation behaviors. Participants were 68 mother-preschooler (aged 36–60 months) dyads that were oversampled for maternal symptoms of borderline personality disorder, in order to achieve greater variability in the range of maternal emotion regulation difficulties. Maternal emotion regulation difficulties and supportive emotion socialization behaviors were measured using self-report questionnaires, and child emotion regulation was coded during a frustration-eliciting blocked goal task. Results partially supported study hypotheses, such that trait maternal emotion regulation difficulties were associated with child displays of sadness at low levels of supportive maternal emotion socialization, but not when mothers engaged in higher levels of supportive emotion socialization. These findings suggest that maternal emotion regulation and emotion socialization are distinctly related to child emotion expression and regulatory actions, and that adaptive maternal emotion socialization may mitigate some of the adverse transgenerational impacts of impaired emotion regulation. Highlights: Examined supportive emotion socialization as a moderator of maternal emotion regulation difficulties and preschoolers' emotion displays and regulatory actions. Only a moderate correlation between maternal trait emotion regulation difficulties and supportive responses to children's negative emotions. Supportive emotion socialization moderated the relation between maternal emotion regulation difficulties and children's expression of sadness. Future work should focus on adaptive emotion socialization as a buffer between maternal emotion regulation difficulties and adverse child outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Early exposure to maternal depression is a key risk factor for child mental illness (MI), but there are limited programs that interrupt intergenerational transmission. The BRIDGE "Building Regulation in Dual Generations" Program treats maternal MI using Dialectical Behavior Therapy Skills with a paired curriculum that promotes non-reactive and emotionally validating parenting designed to improve child mental health and ultimately prevent MI. The pilot feasibility trial (n = 28 dyads) included mothers and their preschool-aged children. The 20-week program was completed in a group-based format using mixed methods questionnaires and interviews. Results indicate high feasibility and acceptability (86% retention). Consistent improvements were seen across program targets and outcomes including maternal depression (d = 1.02) and child mental health (d = 1.08), with clinically significant symptom reductions for 85% of clients. Mothers with higher adversity exhibited greater reductions in parenting stress. Qualitative results highlighted efficacy in promoting positive parent–child relationships, rewarding parenting experiences, competence, and child development. Evidence suggests high feasibility and accessibility for BRIDGE in addressing intergenerational mental health needs. There was strong satisfaction with the program material and efficacy across key outcomes. BRIDGE holds promise for offering a transdiagnostic approach to preventing child MI in families of at-risk preschool aged children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children's inflammation may be an important link between parenting behaviors and health outcomes. The aims of this systematic review were to: (1) describe associations between parenting behaviors and child inflammatory markers, and (2) evaluate the relevance of existing literature to the review question. Database searches identified 19 studies that included a measure of positive or negative parenting behaviors and a marker of child inflammation, 53% of which measured parental responsiveness/warmth. Greater parental responsiveness/warmth was associated with lower levels of child pro-inflammatory markers in 60% of studies. Across studies, the association between parenting and child inflammation varied as a function of parenting construct, inflammatory measure, and sample characteristics. Studies were highly relevant, with 42% rated 5 + out of 6 for study's ability to address links between parenting behavior and child inflammation. If future research uncovers causal effects of parenting behaviors on inflammation, parenting interventions could be employed as a preventative tool. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study examined whether COVID‐19‐related maternal mental health changes contributed to changes in adolescent psychopathology. Methods: A community sample of 226 adolescents (12 years old before COVID‐19) and their mothers were asked to complete COVID‐19 surveys early in the pandemic (April–May 2020, adolescents 14 years) and approximately 6 months later (November 2020–January 2021). Surveys assessed pandemic‐related stressors (health, financial, social, school, environment) and mental health. Results: Lower pre‐pandemic family income‐to‐needs ratio was associated with higher pre‐pandemic maternal mental health symptoms (anxiety, depression) and adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems, and with experiencing more pandemic‐related stressors. Pandemic‐related stressors predicted increases in maternal mental health symptoms, but not adolescent symptoms when other variables were covaried. Higher maternal mental health symptoms predicted concurrent increases in adolescent internalizing and externalizing. Maternal mental health mediated the effects of pre‐pandemic income and pandemic‐related stressors on adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. Conclusions: Results indicate that adolescent mental health is closely tied to maternal mental health during community‐level stressors such as COVID‐19, and that pre‐existing family economic context and adolescent symptoms increase risk for elevations in symptoms of psychopathology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parent stress and mental health problems negatively impact early child development. This study aimed to systematically review and meta-analyze the effect of eHealth interventions on parent stress and mental health outcomes, and identify family- and program-level factors that may moderate treatment effects. A search of PsycINFO, Medline, CINAHL, Cochrane and Embase databases was conducted from their inception dates to July 2020. English-language controlled and open trials were included if they reported: (a) administration of an eHealth intervention, and (b) stress or mental health outcomes such as self-report or clinical diagnosis of anxiety and depression, among (c) parents of children who were aged 1–5 years old. Non-human studies, case reports, reviews, editorials, letters, dissertations, and books were excluded. Risk of bias was assessed using the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Study Quality Assessment Tools. Random-effects meta-analyses of standardized mean differences (SMD) were conducted and meta-regressions tested potential moderators. 38 studies were included (N = 4360 parents), from 13 countries (47.4% USA). Meta-analyses indicated eHealth interventions were associated with better self-reported mental health among parents (overall SMD =.368, 95% CI 0.228, 0.509), regardless of study design (k = 30 controlled, k = 8 pre-post) and across most outcomes (k = 17 anxiety, k = 19 depression, k = 12 parenting stress), with small to medium effect sizes. No significant family- or program-level moderators emerged. Despite different types and targets, eHealth interventions offer a promising and accessible option to promote mental health among parents of young children. Further research is needed on moderators and the long-term outcomes of eHealth interventions. Prospero Registration: CRD42020190719. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study examined growth in effortful control (executive control, delay ability) in relation to income, cumulative risk (aggregate of demographic and psychosocial risk factors), and adjustment in 306 preschool-age children (50 % girls, 50 % boys) from families representing a range of income (29 % at- or near-poverty; 28 % lower-income; 25 % middle-income; 18 % upper-income), with 4 assessments starting at 36-40 month. Income was directly related to levels of executive control and delay ability. Cumulative risk accounted for the effects of income on delay ability but not executive control. Higher initial executive control and slope of executive control and delay ability predicted academic readiness, whereas levels, but not growth, of executive control and delay ability predicted social competence and adjustment problems. Low income is a marker for lower effortful control, which demonstrates additive or mediating effects in the relation of income to children's preschool adjustment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined whether effortful control (executive control [EC], delay ability [DA]) accounted for the effects of early‐childhood contextual factors (income, cumulative risk, parenting) on middle‐childhood adjustment (social competence, internalizing and externalizing problems), or whether contextual factors account for observed associations between effortful control and adjustment. A sample of children and parents (N = 306) were assessed when children were 3‐, 5‐, and 8‐years. Age‐3 income and cumulative risk predicted changes in age‐8 EC. Also, age‐3 parenting predicted changes in effortful control. Warmth and limit setting predicted increases in EC, whereas negativity predicted decreases in DA from the age of 3 to 5, and scaffolding predicted increases in EC and DA from the age of 5 to 8. In turn, age‐8 EC was associated with higher social competence. However, neither age‐8 EC nor DA was associated with internalizing or externalizing above the effects of age‐8 stress (negative life events). The findings indicate that early‐childhood income, adversity, and parenting are relevant in predicting effortful control development into middle‐childhood, and in turn, middle‐childhood social competence. However, concurrent stress appears more relevant to adjustment problems, implying some of the effects of effortful control might be accounted for by the context of risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] We examine the effect of income on rank-order changes in effortful control across the range of income. [•] Income predicts smaller relative increases in effortful control. [•] Relative changes in effortful control predict teacher reports of preschool adjustment. [•] There are trends toward indirect effects of income on adjustment through effortful control. [•] There is specificity to the dimensions of effortful control in the prediction of adjustment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In an at-risk community sample of 2101 girls, we examined trajectories, predictors, and consequences of changes in a central aspect of adolescents' perceived quality of attachment (QOA), i.e., their reported trust in the availability and supportiveness of the primary caregiver. Results demonstrated two distinct epochs of change in this aspect of girls' perceived QOA, with a significant linear decrease in early adolescence (ages 11–14) followed by a plateau from 14 to 16. Baseline parent-reported harsh punishment, low parental involvement, single parent status, and child-reported depression symptoms predicted steeper decreases in attachment during early adolescence, which in turn predicted greater child-reported depression and conduct disorder symptoms in later adolescence. Results suggest that both parent and child factors contribute to trajectories of self-reported QOA in adolescence, and a faster rate of decrease in girls' perceived QOA to caregivers during early adolescence may increase risk for both internalizing and externalizing symptoms. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Interactions between reactive and regulatory dimensions of temperament may be particularly relevant to children's adjustment but are examined infrequently. This study investigated these interactions by examining effortful control as a moderator of the relations of fear and frustration reactivity to children's social competence, internalizing, and externalizing problems. Participants included 306 three-year-old children and their mothers. Children's effortful control was measured using observational measures, and reactivity was assessed with both observational and mother-reported measures. Mothers reported on children's adjustment. Significant interactions indicated that children with higher mother-reported fear or higher observed frustration and lower executive control showed higher externalizing problems whereas children with higher observed fear and higher delay ability demonstrated lower externalizing problems. These results highlight effortful control as a moderator of the relation between reactivity and adjustment, and may inform the development of interventions geared toward the management of specific negative affects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The term allostasis, which is defined as stability through change, has been invoked repeatedly by developmental psychopathologists to describe long-lasting and in some cases permanent functional alterations in limbic–hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis responding following recurrent and/or prolonged exposure to stress. Increasingly, allostatic load models have also been invoked to describe psychological sequelae of abuse, neglect, and other forms of maltreatment. In contrast, neural adaptations to stress, including those incurred by monoamine systems implicated in (a) mood and emotion regulation, (b) behavioral approach, and (c) social affiliation and attachment, are usually not included in models of allostasis. Rather, structural and functional alterations in these systems, which are exquisitely sensitive to prolonged stress exposure, are usually explained as stress mediators, neural plasticity, and/or programming effects. Considering these mechanisms as distinct from allostasis is somewhat artificial given overlapping functions and intricate coregulation of monoamines and the limbic–hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. It also fractionates literatures that should be mutually informative. In this article, we describe structural and functional alterations in serotonergic, dopaminergic, and noradrenergic neural systems following both acute and prolonged exposure to stress. Through increases in behavioral impulsivity, trait anxiety, mood and emotion dysregulation, and asociality, alterations in monoamine functioning have profound effects on personality, attachment relationships, and the emergence of psychopathology. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Accounting for both bidirectional and interactive effects between parenting and child temperament can fine-tune theoretical models of the role of parenting and temperament in children's development of adjustment problems. Evidence for bidirectional and interactive effects between parenting and children's characteristics of frustration, fear, self-regulation, and impulsivity was reviewed, and an overall model of children's individual differences in response to parenting is proposed. In general, children high in frustration, impulsivity and low in effortful control are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of negative parenting, while in turn, many negative parenting behaviors predict increases in these characteristics. Frustration, fearfulness, and effortful control also appear to elicit parenting behaviors that can predict increases in these characteristics. Irritability renders children more susceptible to negative parenting behaviors. Fearfulness operates in a very complex manner, sometimes increasing children's responses to parenting behaviors and sometimes mitigating them and apparently operating differently across gender. Important directions for future research include the use of study designs and analytic approaches that account for the direction of effects and for developmental changes in parenting and temperament over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) acknowledges that environmental and developmental influences represent important elements of the RDoC framework, there is little specificity regarding how and when to systematically examine the impact of these dimensions on domains of function. The primary aims of this paper are to demonstrate the ways in which the RDoC can be expanded to include an explicit emphasis on (a) assessing within-individual change in developmental processes over time and (b) evaluating the extent to which selective and measurable environmental influences drive meaningful change during key developmental periods. We provide data from an ongoing randomized control trial as a proof of concept to highlight how repeated assessments within an experimental intervention design affords the unique opportunity to test the impact of environmental influences on within-individual change. Using preliminary data from 77 mother–child dyads repeatedly assessed across 12 months during the sensitive preschool period, we demonstrate the impact of change in maternal emotion regulation (ER) on within-individual growth in child ER and link that growth to fewer teacher-reported externalizing problems. In line with this Special Issue, findings are discussed within the context of expanding and clarifying the existing RDoC framework to explicitly incorporate environmental and developmental dimensions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parenting is a stressful and difficult endeavor, and even the most skillful parents are apt to make mistakes that warrant an apology to their child. However, little is known regarding parents' overall willingness to apologize to their child or the content of parental apologies when provided. Informed by research on apology outside the parenting context, the current exploratory study aimed to characterize maternal apology attitudes and behavior. A sample of mothers (N = 186) was recruited from the community, and they self-reported their proclivity to apologize to their child, as well as their proclivity to apologize generally. Mothers were also asked to model a skillful parental apology through an open-ended text response to a vignette, and these responses were coded for the presence of effective apology components. Mothers reported a high proclivity to apologize to their child, and this was associated with their willingness to apologize generally. However, the majority of mothers' written apologies included few of the elements recommended for effective apologies. Similar to other literature on apology, this finding suggests that although mothers may be willing to apologize when needed, knowing and implementing an effective apology is challenging. Highlights: Mothers report frequently apologizing to their children after making parenting mistakes. When asked to craft an effective parental apology in response to a hypothetical vignette, mothers used an average of two of five critical apology components in their responses. Mothers' self-reported apology proclivity was modestly related to their use of effective apology components in written responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Additive and bidirectional effects of executive control and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis regulation on children's adjustment were examined, along with the effects of low income and cumulative risk on executive control and the HPA axis. The study utilized longitudinal data from a community sample of preschool age children (N = 306, 36–39 months at Time 1) whose families were recruited to overrepresent low-income contexts. We tested the effects of low income and cumulative risk on levels and growth of executive control and HPA axis regulation (diurnal cortisol level), the bidirectional effects of executive control and the HPA axis on each other, and their additive effects on children's adjustment problems, social competence and academic readiness. Low income predicted lower Time 4 executive control, and cumulative risk predicted lower Time 4 diurnal cortisol level. There was little evidence of bidirectional effects of executive control and diurnal cortisol. However, both executive control and diurnal cortisol predicted Time 4 adjustment, suggesting additive effects. There were indirect effects of income on all three adjustment outcomes through executive control, and of cumulative risk on adjustment problems and social competence through diurnal cortisol. The results provide evidence that executive control and diurnal cortisol additively predict children's adjustment and partially account for the effects of income and cumulative risk on adjustment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although dissociation is believed to develop in early childhood, there is little research prospectively examining childhood dissociation or parental contributions related to its development. The current study sought to examine parent factors prospectively related to changes in dissociation symptoms in childhood. The current study sampled 68 mother-child dyads at two time points, when children were 3–4 and then 5–6 years, in which mothers with emotion dysregulation were oversampled. Maternal emotion dysregulation was assessed at both time points. Maternal dissociation was assessed only at time two. Child dissociation was assessed at each time point using a modified subscale of the Child Behavioral Checklist. Results showed moderate stability in childhood dissociation across time points. Further, maternal emotion dysregulation and dissociation were both significantly correlated with children's dissociation. Accounting for several covariates, time one maternal emotion dysregulation was prospectively associated with preschoolers' dissociative behaviors at 5–6 years old. The present work suggests that symptoms of dissociation can be observed early in childhood and that maternal factors play an early role in the development of dissociation in children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT) is regarded as one of the most effective treatments for children who have experienced trauma and is rapidly being disseminated. To best ensure efficacy, even among treatment refractory symptoms, a better understanding of the factors that lead TF-CBT to be more or less effective for some children is warranted. One major factor that has not been systematically considered is the role of caregiver psychopathology. Therefore, this systematic review of 18 empirical studies examined how TF-CBT has incorporated caregiver psychopathology into the treatment of childhood trauma and how it is related to treatment outcomes. The results of this review provide preliminary support for TF-CBT decreasing caregiver psychopathology, in terms of symptoms of depression, PTSD, and emotional distress related to the child's experience of trauma, as well as partial support for caregiver depression, rather than caregiver PTSD or distress, influencing child treatment outcomes. It also illuminates the strong need for future TF-CBT studies to routinely measure caregiver psychopathology. Several recommendations are provided to ensure that the emerging research base can inform clinical practice guidelines on how to incorporate caregivers who exhibit psychopathology and potentially develop modifications to the existing treatment to address trauma and symptoms in both members of the caregiver-child dyad, when needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bidirectional associations between child temperament (fear, frustration, positive affect, effortful control) and parenting behaviors (warmth, negativity, limit setting, scaffolding, responsiveness) were examined as predictors of preschool-age children's adjustment problems and social competence. Participants were a community sample of children (N = 306; 50% female, 64% European American) and their mothers. Observational measures of child temperament and parenting were obtained using laboratory tasks at two time points (children's ages 36 and 54 months). Teacher-reported adjustment measures were collected at the first and third time points (children's ages 36 and 63 months). Cross-lagged analyses were performed to examine whether child temperament and parenting predict changes in one another, whether they each contribute independently to children's adjustment, and whether these transactional relations account for adjustment outcomes. Maternal negativity at 36 months predicted increases in child frustration at 54 months. Maternal negativity and child effortful control predicted decreases in each other from 36 to 54 months. Maternal warmth predicted increases in child effortful control over time. Child frustration, child effortful control, maternal warmth, and maternal negativity at 54 months each independently predicted child adjustment problems at 63 months, controlling for problems at 36 months. Child executive control at 54 months predicted increases in child social competence at 63 months. The findings suggest that temperament and parenting have independent and additive effects on preschool-age child adjustment, with some support for a bidirectional relation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although prior research has characterized stress system reactivity (i.e. hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, HPAA; autonomic nervous system, ANS) in children, it has yet to examine the extent to which biological reactivity predicts concurrent goal-directed behavior. Here, we employed a stressor paradigm that allowed concurrent assessment of both stress system reactivity and performance on a speeded-response task to investigate the links between biological reactivity and cognitive function under stress. We further investigated gender as a moderator given previous research suggesting that the ANS may be particularly predictive of behavior in males due to gender differences in socialization. In a sociodemographically diverse sample of young children (N = 58, M age = 5.38 yrs; 44% male), individual differences in sociodemographic covariates (age, household income), HPAA (i.e. cortisol), and ANS (i.e. respiratory sinus arrhythmia, RSA, indexing the parasympathetic branch; pre-ejection period, PEP, indexing the sympathetic branch) function were assessed as predictors of cognitive performance under stress. We hypothesized that higher income, older age, and greater cortisol reactivity would be associated with better performance overall, and flexible ANS responsivity (i.e. RSA withdrawal, PEP shortening) would be predictive of performance for males. Overall, females performed better than males. Two-group SEM analyses suggest that, for males, greater RSA withdrawal to the stressor was associated with better performance, while for females, older age, higher income, and greater cortisol reactivity were associated with better performance. Results highlight the relevance of stress system reactivity to cognitive performance under stress. Future research is needed to further elucidate for whom and in what situations biological reactivity predicts goal-directed behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: It is expected that both children and their parents contribute to children's development of emotion knowledge and adjustment. Bidirectional relations between child temperament (fear, frustration, executive control) and mothers' reactions to children's emotional experiences were examined to explore how these variables predict children's emotion understanding, social competence, and problem behaviors. Preschool‐aged children (N = 306) and their mothers were assessed across four‐time points. Children's temperament and mothers' non‐supportive reactions to children's emotional experiences were assessed when children were 36 and 45 months of age. Emotion understanding was assessed when the children were 54 months of age and teachers reported on children's problem behaviors and social competence when the children were 63 months of age. Covariates included family income, child cognitive ability, gender, and child adjustment at 36 months. Results from path analyses demonstrated that bidirectional relations between children's temperament and mothers' non‐supportive reactions were not significant. However, mother's non‐supportive reactions directly predicted fewer problem behaviors, and children's emotion understanding mediated the relation between children's executive control and their later social competence. As such, emotion understanding appears to be one mechanism through which executive control might impact social competence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although mistakes are inevitable in parenting, parental apology is largely unexplored in developmental literature. The current study aimed to characterize associations between parent apology, parenting behaviors, and internalizing, externalizing, and prosocial behaviors during the middle childhood period. Participants were 177 mothers of school-aged children. Parenting behaviors, maternal proclivity to apologize, and child behaviors were measured via maternal report. Participants were also asked to model a written apology, and responses were coded for apology effectiveness. Maternal proclivity to apologize was positively associated with involvement, positive parenting, and child prosocial behaviors and negatively associated with inconsistent discipline and child internalizing behaviors. Proclivity to apologize predicted child prosocial behaviors beyond general parenting behaviors. Apology effectiveness was inversely related to inconsistent discipline, positive parenting, and child externalizing behaviors. These preliminary findings show distinct associations between maternal apology components and parenting and child behaviors. Discussion is framed around implications for parenting interventions and prosocial development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Keywords: adjustment; cumulative risk; early childhood executive control; hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis; income EN adjustment cumulative risk early childhood executive control hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis income 1140 1141 2 08/23/21 20210801 NES 210801 In Lengua et al. 2020, the slope factor loadings were incorrectly represented in figure 1. Pathways from early adversity to later adjustment: Tests of the additive and bidirectional effects of executive control and diurnal cortisol in early childhood. Pathways from early adversity to later adjustment: Tests of the additive and bidirectional effects of executive control and diurnal cortisol in early childhood - Corrigendum. [Extracted from the article]

This study tested the hypothesis that the effects of income and cumulative risk on the development of effortful control during preschool would be mediated by parenting. The study utilized a community sample of 306 children (36-40 months) representing the full range of family income, with 29 percent at or near poverty and 28 percent lower income. Two dimensions of effortful control (executive control and delay ability) were assessed at four time points, each separated by nine months, and growth trajectories were examined. Maternal warmth, negativity, limit setting, scaffolding, and responsiveness were observed. Above the effects of child cognitive ability, income, and cumulative risk, scaffolding predicted higher initial levels of executive control that remained higher across the study, and limit setting predicted greater gains in executive control. Parenting did not predict changes in delay ability. Significant indirect effects indicated that scaffolding mediated the effects of income and cumulative risk on growth in executive control. The findings suggest that parenting behaviors can promote effortful control in young children and could be targets of prevention programs in low-income families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]