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International migration to depopulated areas is a growing field of research; even more so in Spain, one of the European countries most affected by depopulation. This paper analyses, first, the demographic impact of immigration from other countries in Aragon, which has undergone an intense and long process of depopulation throughout most of its territory. Second, we examine the factors that explain the immigrants' choice of destination. The analysis focuses on the period 2000–2016. The basic territorial units of the analysis are the municipality (NUTS 5) and the county (NUTS 4). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluates the policies developed in Spain to address depopulation and explains the reasons for their low effectiveness. We consider that the low impact of these policies is due to an incorrect diagnosis and design in terms of their content and governance. Therefore, we propose that depopulation policies should have the objective of enabling citizens to reside where they wish and obtain the best possible quality of life. These policies should be implemented within a new governance framework in which the foundations on which they are based and the way in which they are implemented are renewed. With the support of the European Union, such action could be carried out more efficiently and could constitute a reference of successful territorial cohesion contributing to erasing the populist opinion in places that believe that they do not matter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is the first of its kind to offer a quantitative estimation of the evolution of Latin American agricultural production and productivity between 1950 and 2008. It also uncovers the extent to which the increases in production were due to increases in factors of production or to efficiency gains. Our findings reveal that efficiency gains made a rather modest contribution to the substantial increase in production, although their role became increasingly large over time and were highly significant between 1994 and 2008. Capital was the most important productive factor in explaining increases in output. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract In the era of globalisation over the last half century, there has been an increase in the exchange of agricultural and food products. This internationalisation process has led to intense environmental pressures on a global level, which has been the case of water resources. This paper studies the determinants of global virtual water trade flows between 1965 and 2010. Using panel data techniques, we have evaluated and quantified the explanatory factors of bilateral virtual water transfers between 70 countries as a result of agri-food trade. We have used the well-known trade gravity equation to explain exchanges of water embodied in agricultural goods on the basis of economic, geographical, institutional and environmental factors. The analysis considers economic country heterogeneity in order to evaluate how trade impacts water resources depending on different development patterns. Our main findings indicate that the traditional economic, institutional and geographic factors played a key role as drivers of virtual water bilateral trade flows between 1965 and 2010. In addition, the natural endowments also exerted a notable influence on these trends. Highlights • The long term determinants of VWT are assessed using a gravity model. • Changes in the country and product composition of VWX and VWM happened from 1965. • Environmental endowments notably determine VWT trends. • Considering income heterogeneity reveals notable divergences in the drivers of VWT. • Dynamic analyses offer a broader framework to study impacts on water through trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this article is to investigate how the characteristics of the different types of human settlements explain their demographic dynamics and, therefore, which of these have been affected to a greater extent by depopulation processes. For this purpose, we analyse the evolution of the population of Aragón (north-east Spain) in the period 1900–2001, according to the different types of population settlements that exist. Our results show that access to public services has played an essential role, especially when the construction of the welfare state made the rural population feel that there was a penalty for residing in settlements with problems to access them. The main settlements, headquarters of the municipal administration, have had advantages over the secondary settlements. Finally, the scattered population was the most affected and, therefore, emigrated to a greater extent, until this form of residence practically disappeared. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The globalization process of the last half century entailed a growing trade in agricultural and food products. As a result, water has been transferred among countries, embodied in these goods. This paper studies the evolution of virtual water flows over the long term, analyzing the main driving factors through Decomposition Analysis. It contributes to the existing literature by offering a dynamic and economic interpretation of the historical changes in virtual water trade flows. In particular, this study points to a gradual increase in virtual water exchange, related to the upsurge of agricultural and food products trade in the world from 1965 to 2010. Although the origins and destinations of virtual water have changed, North America stands out as the primary net exporter of virtual water. Europe and Asia, on the other hand, with a high dependency on foreign water resources, appear as net importers of virtual water. Despite improvements in agricultural yields and the reallocation of production, the virtual water trade continues to increase globally via these significant commercial exchanges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the second half of the twentieth century, Latin American countries lost a substantial part of their importance in worldwide exports of agricultural and food products. Given this context, the objective of this article is to analyse the determinants of the evolution of agricultural exports from Latin America, paying special attention to the influence of regional processes of economic integration on exports and to their degree of participation in intra-industrial trade. We propose a gravity model with a data panel of total exports and product groups for six Latin American countries towards 39 destinations between 1963 and 2000. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Since 1860, the Spanish agricultural sector has undergone an intensive process of development resulting in important structural changes, not only in the sector itself, but also in the relationship of the agrarian system to natural resources. This paper studies the evolution of domestic water consumption as a consequence of increasing agricultural production, as well as the impact that the growing need for water had on the construction of infrastructure for irrigation. To that end, we examine the water consumed in the production of vegetable and animal goods for five different years: 1860, 1900, 1930, 1962 and 2010. From these results, a detailed analysis of the trends in water consumption and changes in compositional patterns is carried out. We determine to what extent the development of the agricultural sector conditioned the construction of new irrigation infrastructure. Finally, a Decomposition Analysis (DA) is applied to analytically identify and quantify the main explanatory factors behind that evolution, and to understand the increase in agricultural water consumption over the long term. Our findings show the large pressures on water resources exerted as a result of the expansion of the Spanish agricultural sector during the last 150 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper aims to analyse the impact on water consumption of trade expansion in the first era of globalisation. To that end, we have chosen the case of Spain, a semi-arid country with significant cyclical water shortages. More specifically, we are interested in answering the following questions. What volume of water was required for exports of agricultural and food products? How did this variable evolve over time? Which factors drove this evolution? In short, we wish to understand the impact on water resources of Spain's entry into world agriculture and food markets. Firstly, we examine virtual water trade flows in the long run. Secondly, we attempt to disentangle certain major driving forces underlying these trajectories. In order to establish the role played by trade in the final net balance of water, a Decomposition Analysis (DA) is applied. Our findings show the great pressures that the first globalisation imposed on not only domestic but also foreign water resources. Trade volumes as well as trade patterns were essential factors driving rising virtual water flows, while yield improvements contributed smoothly to moderation in the expansion of water flows. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] DON concentrations of 560ng/ml and higher were detrimental to the survival of PRRSV permissive cells, MARC-145 and PAM. [•] DON concentrations between 140 and 280ng/ml reduced the cytopathic effect caused by PRRSV in permissive cells. [•] Early activation of pro-inflammatory genes and apoptosis may be detrimental to PRRSV survival in DON-exposed permissive cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explains how technological developments and changes in production encouraged and drove the processes of agricultural modernisation that occurred in the second half of the twentieth century, taking the region of Aragon in north eastern Spain as a case study. The main agricultural macro-variables reveal a surge in output, coincident with a far-reaching restructuring of production, in which livestock and animal feeds played a key role. The relative success of this high speed agricultural transformation was largely due to technological progress and the development of Aragon's trade links before 1936. Meanwhile, the earlier development of irrigation schemes, the capitalisation of farms and experimentation with different seed varieties allowed the region to adapt quickly to the new Green Revolution technologies that came to the fore after 1950. At the same time, established trade links allowed a swift transition to livestock and related produce destined for fast developing agro-industrial regions, like Catalonia and Valencia. As in other countries, technological and trade path dependency also explain the polarisation of agricultural development within Aragon itself, and in particular the success of the provinces of Zaragoza and Huesca in contrast to failure and depopulation in Teruel. The experience of Aragon may thus be useful to understand the dynamics of other less developed regions currently in the throes of transformation. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The countries in the Mediterranean basin increasingly specialized in Mediterranean agricultural products for exports throughout the twentieth century. In this context, the main objective of this paper is to quantify and discuss on the impacts that this growing Mediterranean exports specialization generated on water resources over the last century. To that aim, we focus on the water embodied in Mediterranean exports, the trends followed by dams' construction and the area equipped for irrigation as well as on the evolution of blue water stress. Our findings point at an intense expansion of Mediterranean virtual water exports between 1910 and 2010 that went along with the construction of water infrastructure. It enabled water-intensive crops to be grown in arid regions, but also, exacerbated blue water stress. We also find important regional divergences, highlighting the role of Spain as a super exporter of Mediterranean crops. Finally, we observe that the trends and patterns of trade flows and the subsequent pressures on water resources are highly conditioned by political, economic and technological developments. • Mediterranean blue VWX grew by a factor of 4.4 between 1910 and 2010. • Water infrastructure was essential for the long-term Mediterranean specialization. • From 1960 dam capacity increased fifteen fold and irrigated land doubled. • Spain became a super exporter of blue water and shows low water productivity. • Irrigation water stress intensified, particularly in the southern shore. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The aim of this study is to determine whether the evolution of Spain's agrarian change, between 1950 and 2005, exhibits any features important enough to differentiate it from the common model of developed countries in Western Europe. On the one hand, the Spanish agrarian transformations share the main features of the changes in Western Europe: technological innovation, increased production and productivity, the diminishing importance of the agricultural sector, close integration with the industrial sector, and a high environmental impact. On the other hand, a series of important peculiarities can be observed in Spain's agrarian change: strong expansion of intensive livestock farming; the role of increased irrigation in explaining the transformation of agriculture; policies that offered very little support to the agricultural sector under a dictatorship that denied a voice to farmers; and the prominent role of agriculture in the economy despite its small contribution to GDP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyses the causes of the strong growth in the agri-food exports of Latin America between 1994 and 2019. To do this, a series of gravity models are estimated, using as a dependent variable the agri-food exports of 15 Latin American countries to their 185 principal trading partners. The empirical specification is based on the gravity theory of trade, according to which, trade between two countries is determined by the size of both of their markets and their transport costs. Other variables have also been included, considering the theoretical foundations proposed for the gravity model. We initially used the PPML estimator since it is the method that provides estimates with the best properties. We later compared these results with those obtained through OLS and the Heckman selection model. Our findings show that the growth in agri-food exports is explained by factors of both supply and demand, but that the latter plays a more important role since we have obtained evidence of a reverse home-market effect. Furthermore, we can conclude that the creation of regional trade agreements, such as NAFTA, MERCOSUR, CACM, APEC, and TPP, has significantly favoured agri-food exports in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Why is population not evenly distributed throughout a country’s territory? This paper focuses on the case of Spain, in order to empirically test two complementary theoretical explanations: (a) first nature advantages or locational fundamentals; and (b) second nature advantages or increasing returns. We estimate population density and population growth equations for the case of Spain between 1787 and 2000. Our results suggest that locational fundamentals explain the distribution of population prior to industrialization and that industrialization reinforced the pre-existing regional population disparities, especially as the share of increasing-returns sectors in the Spanish economy became significant. Finally, we perform an ANOVA analysis which shows that although in the pre-industrial economy first nature advantages were the most important in explaining the growth in provincial population densities, these were progressively superseded by the influence of first via second nature effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature on business models and sustainability is vast but fragmented across many studies. This article seeks to unify the diverse contributions, proposing a sustainable business model archetype. With a sample of 411 Spanish wineries and using the Mann-Whitney U test, we have detected a difference between wineries in terms of their sustainability, identifying two business models, one of high sustainability and another of low sustainability. The high sustainability business model is based on the ownership of a vineyard, the production of bottled wine, sales in retail stores, supermarkets or through intermediaries, a better online position than the competition, a positioning in the premium segment and exports. The business model of a less sustainable winery is based on the sale of bulk wine in the low-price segment and an unawareness of where the wine is sold. • The joint analysis of sustainability and the business model of wineries has been conducted by very few researchers. • The business model of a winery determines its degree of sustainability. • The difference in the integration of sustainability in wineries gives rise to two business models. • The key elements of each business model have been identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was performed to characterize the influence of consuming DON naturally contaminated feeds on pig's intestinal immune defenses, antibody response and cellular immunity. Sixteen 4-week-old piglets were randomly allocated to two dietary treatments: control diet or diet contaminated with 3.5 mg DON/kg. At days 7 and 21, animals were immunized with ovalbumin (OVA). On day 42, intestinal samples were collected for measurement of gene expression involved in immune response, oxidative status and barrier function. Primary IgG antibody response to OVA was increased in pigs fed DON diet compared to control animals. In the ileum of pigs fed DON diet, claudin, occludin, and vimentin genes involved in integrity and barrier function were down-regulated compared to controls. Results also revealed that expression of two chemokines (IL-8, CXCL10), interferon-γ, and major antioxidant glutathione peroxidase 2 (GPX-2) were up-regulated whereas expression of genes encoding enzymatic antioxidants including GPX-3, GPX-4 and superoxide dismutase 3 (SOD-3) were down-regulated in pigs fed DON-contaminated diet. These results strongly suggest that ingestion of DON naturally contaminated feed impaired intestinal barrier and immunological functions by modulating expression of genes coding for proteins involved in tight junctions, tissue remodelling, inflammatory reaction, oxidative stress reaction and immune response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium spp and is a common contaminant of grains in North America. Among farm animals, swine are the most susceptible to DON because it markedly reduces feed intake and decreases weight gain. Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is the main causative agent of several syndromes in weaning piglets collectively known as porcine circovirus-associated disease (PCVAD). The objectives of this study were to investigate the impact of DON on PCV2 replication in NPTr permissive cell line, and to determine eventual potentiating effects of DON on PCV2 infection in pigs. Noninfected and infected cells with PCV2 were treated with increasing concentrations of DON (0, 70, 140, 280, 560, 1200 ng/mL) and cell survival and virus titer were evaluated 72 h postinfection. Thirty commercial piglets were randomly divided into 3 experimental groups of 10 animals based on DON content of served diets (0, 2.5 and 3.5 mg/kg DON). All groups were further divided into subgroups of 6 pigs and were inoculated with PCV2b virus. The remaining pigs (control) were sham-inoculated with PBS. In vitro results showed that low concentrations of DON could potentially increase PCV2 replication depending on virus genotype. In vivo results showed that even though viremia and lung viral load tend to be higher in animal ingesting DON contaminated diet at 2.5 mg/kg, DON had no significant effect on clinical manifestation of PCVAD in PCV2b infected animals. DON has neither in vitro nor in vivo clear potentiating effects in the development of porcine circovirus infection despite slight increases in viral replication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]