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Highlights • Volatile composition of spices comprises primarily terpenes, aldehydes and esters. • Saffron and chili paprika showed distinct volatile profiles. • Overlap in terpenic compounds is shown for pepper, cinnamon and nutmeg. • The major compounds discriminating the six spices were determined. Abstract Aroma properties of spices are related to the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present, which can provide distinct analytical signatures. The aim of the study was to examine similarity and diversity of VOC profiles of six common market spices (black/white pepper, chili paprika, cinnamon, nutmeg and saffron). The key volatiles were identified by PTR-TOFMS. Twelve samples per spice were subjected to PTR-Quadrupole MS (PTR-QMS) and Principal Component Analysis to compare the groups and examine diversity. With PTR-TOFMS, 101 volatile compounds were identified as total sum across all samples by mass and comparing them with literature data. Some spices comprised key character aroma compounds, e.g. cinnamaldehyde in cinnamon. For others, VOC groups, such as terpenes, acids and aldehydes topped the list. The PTR-QMS in combination with variables selection resulted in distinct PCA patterns for each spice. Variation within the spice groups was observed, but varied with the kind of spice. The results are valuable for future authentication studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food fraud results from the interaction of motivated offenders with opportunities, and lack of control measures. The vulnerability to food fraud varies across chain actors (tiers) though, but insights on prime fraud drivers and enablers, as well as chain areas where vulnerabilities might exist are lacking. In the current study the fish, meat, milk, olive oil, organic bananas, and spice supply chains were assessed for their fraud vulnerabilities. The differences and similarities in vulnerabilities across the supply chains, as well as between groups of chain actors were evaluated using the SSAFE food fraud vulnerability assessment tool. Multiple correspondence analysis and agglomerative hierarchical clustering were applied for exploratory data analysis, and differences between chains and actors were assessed by analysis of variance and post-hoc tests. Thirteen fraud factors related to opportunities and motivations scored high across all supply chains indicating their importance as fraud drivers and enablers. Control measures varied considerably across supply chains and actor groups, with technical (hard) controls generally being more in place than managerial (soft) controls. Approximately half of the fraud factors were impacted by the type of commodity chain, and one out of seven of the fraud factors by the actor group. From the current sample group overall fraud vulnerability appeared highest for the spice chain, which was followed by the olive oil, meat, fish, milk and organic banana chains. Among the actor groups, the wholesale/traders group appeared most vulnerable, followed by retailers and processors. The current results provide new insights in the fraud factors determining fraud vulnerability in various supply chains, and the (dis)similarities in fraud vulnerability across supply chains and actor groups which helps to combat future food fraud. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Although consumer food waste has increasingly received attention in both the public and the scientific domain, its complex nature is far from unravelled. Scope and approach This study aimed to contribute to an integral understanding of possible causal pathways of consumer food waste, by means of a configurative systematic literature review of potential factors of consumer food waste. Insights from 59 scientific articles have been systematically analysed and synthesised. Key findings and conclusions Consumer food waste research is characterised by fragmentation, lack of differentiation, and a relative scarcity of explanatory research into causal mechanisms. Potential factors of consumer food waste have been identified and categorised into behavioural, personal, product and societal factors and subclusters of these categories. On the basis of a synthesised overview of 116 factors, a framework has been developed that conceptualises the generation of consumer food waste in relation to stages of the household food chain. This review sheds light on the context-dependent ways in which proposed factors may be related to food waste and the possibility of parallel causal routes. Food waste factors might exert their influence in unexpected, indirect or multiple ways, possibly explaining contradictory findings. They might interact with other factors or form a condition for other factors to play a role, or might be correlated with food waste without playing a causal role. The framework may facilitate an integral and context-sensitive systems perspective, thereby promoting studies that account for the complexity of consumer food waste and intervention programmes that are better targeted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Food chains have changed dramatically due to technical and demographic changes over the last decades. Although efforts are made to ensure high quality and integrity, food-borne outbreaks and food scandals still happen to an undesired extent. Scope and approach This commentary paper aims to give insight in the current approach in the European food control and audit system, the underestimation of complexity and the role of trust in food control and auditing. Furthermore, the need for complex systems thinking in risk-based auditing is discussed and a framework to structure complex system risk-based auditing is proposed. Key findings and conclusions The current food control system seems to cause a reactive vicious cycle, which leads to more and stricter regulations and standards on every level. A new paradigm in risk-based auditing is needed that acknowledges the behaviour of complex systems to ensure trust along the food chain. The proposed framework for complex system risk-based auditing may enable a systematic analysis of audit triggers, audit goals and context characteristics suggesting multiple methods for risk analysis, as basis for the questions on when, how, what, and whom to audit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increased attention to the need for constructively aligned teaching and learning in interdisciplinary higher education in engineering is observed. By contrast, little research has been conducted on the implementation of the outcome-based pedagogical approach to interdisciplinary higher education in engineering. Therefore, the present design-based research was undertaken to develop, implement, and evaluate a constructively aligned learning environment in the interdisciplinary field of food quality management. The practical aims were to reduce the perception held by the students of choppiness and to prevent them floundering in the disciplines; the theoretical aim was to accumulate theory on learning environment aspects that would help students to learn interdisciplinary thinking. The design-focused evaluation among 26 students showed that the practical aims were met, and concerning the theoretical aim, eight learning environment aspects were identified such as learning within an interdisciplinary framework. Further research should validate these aspects to continue with tackling teacher challenges on teaching interdisciplinary thinking. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Recurrently the question arises if efforts in food safety management system (FSMS) have resulted in effective systems in animal-based food production systems. The aim of this study was to gain an insight in the performance of FSMS in European animal-based food production companies in view of their typical context characteristics. Hundred European companies (from Belgium, Spain, The Netherlands, Greece, Italy, and Hungary) varying in company size, and producing different types of fresh and processed animal-derived products (dairy, beef/lamb, poultry, and pork) were assed using a diagnostic instrument. Results indicated that most participating companies adapted adequately their food safety management systems to the riskiness of their context characteristics resulting in rather good safety output scores. Only a small group have overall basic systems and operate in a moderate or moderate-high risk context, which was reflected in lower safety output scores. Companies tend to invest first in the control strategies whereas assurance activities such as verification and validation seem to require more time and effort to achieve advanced levels. Our study demonstrated that also small and medium enterprises managed to have advanced systems, and achieve a good safety output. However, their typical organisational characteristics such as less resources (educated staff, laboratory facilities, time), more restricted formalisation (restricted use of procedures and formal meetings), limited information systems, but more stable workforce, might require more tailored support from government and/or branch organisations to develop towards advanced systems in the case of high-risk products and processes. More in-depth studies to successful SMEs could give insight in best practices to improve FSMS performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Food service establishments (FSE) operate under restricted technological and organisational circumstances, making them susceptible to food safety problems as reported frequently. Aim of this study was to get insight in Food Safety Management System (FSMS) performance in different types of FSE in view of their context characteristics. Assessment of fifty Spanish FSE indicated that all work with high-risk products and processes, are at a vulnerable chain position, provide different organisational support, and adapted differently their FSMS to their high-risk context. Hierarchical cluster analysis showed four clusters of FSE differing in organisational characteristics and FSMS activity levels. The largest cluster, including all small restaurants, showed lowest FSMS performance levels and limited organisational support, i.e. lack of safety expertise/support, restricted requirements on operator competences, limited training, restricted employee involvement, and no formalisation. Overall, they apparently did not use sector guidelines or any expert knowledge to design their FSMS. However, some crucial control measures (like cooling and cooking) performed at an average level; they use professional equipment with known capability with only sometimes unstable performance. Only a small cluster of FSE provided supportive organisational conditions and their systems perform at an average to advanced level. They invested in best available equipment, some tested and adapted to their circumstances, and acquired expertise support to design and independently evaluate their system. FSE with insufficient organisational conditions suffer both a risky context and low activity levels of control and assurance activities, which increases the risk of insufficient safety of meals served. The insights of this study could support food authorities to target their attention to specific groups of FSE and enhance supporting activities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study describes a performance measurement of implemented food safety management system (FSMS) along the lamb chain using an FSMS-diagnostic instrument (FSMS-DI) and a Microbiological Assessment Scheme (MAS). Three slaughterhouses, 1 processing plant and 5 butcher shops were evaluated. All the actors along the lamb chain achieved a moderate risky contextual situation, operating in a basic-average FSMS, which was not enough to obtain a good food safety output. Different suggestions are advised for each actor along the lamb chain for improvements towards higher FSMS activity levels or lower risk levels in context characteristics. The combined assessment is a useful tool to identify the possible causes of poor food safety performance in the lamb chain using few sampling locations, saving time and money. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Stakeholder requirements force companies to analyse their food safety management system (FSMS) performance to improve food safety. Performance is commonly analysed by checking compliance against preset requirements via audits/inspections, or actual food safety (FS) output is analysed by microbiological testing. This paper discusses the usefulness of a concurrent diagnosis of FSMS performance and FS output using new tools; illustrated for three meat-processing companies. Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. (food safety indicators), Escherichia coli, Enterobacteriaceae (hygiene indicators), and total viable counts TVC (overall performance) were analysed at ten critical sampling locations covering both product and environmental samples, using the Microbial Assessment Scheme diagnosis. Riskiness of FSMS context and performance of core FSMS activities were assessed using a diagnostic tool (including 51 indicators and corresponding grids with level descriptions). For the (large) beef meat processor, the FS output diagnosis showed too high TVC but the high activity scores of their FSMS indicated that this problem could be only solved by supplier measures. Likewise, for the (medium-size) poultry meat processor, the activity/context diagnosis showed a clear dependency on suppliers. However, the FS output diagnosis revealed a broader contamination problem, and additional measures to improve, amongst others, sanitation program, compliance to procedures, personal hygienic requirements seem necessary. The FS output diagnosis of the (small) lamb meat processor showed various contamination problems (but no pathogens) corresponding with various low activity levels in combination with he high-risk context. The combined diagnosis provided clear directions for improvement to move towards more advanced FSMS activity levels or to reduce riskiness in context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The current quality assurance and control tools and methods to prevent and/or to control microbiological risks associated with fresh produce are challenged due to the following pressures upon the food supply chain, i.e. changing consumption patterns, globalization and climate change. It demonstrates the need for scientific research and development of new and/or improved tools, techniques and practices to adapt the current risk management systems. In this paper, a conceptual research approach is presented to analyse the complexity of the climate change and globalization challenge on the fresh produce supply chain taken as a case study. The factors which affect the vulnerability of the fresh produce chain demand a multidisciplinary research approach. The proposed knowledge-based modelling system is believed to be a most appropriate way to identify problems and to offer solutions to monitor and prevent microbiological food safety risks during all phases of food production and supply. To explore the potential impact of climate change and globalization, baseline information can be obtained by surveillance and performance measurement of implemented food safety management systems. Simulation of climate change scenarios and the logistic chain of fresh produce, along with mathematical models to optimize packaging technology to maintain quality and safety of fresh produce are tools to provide insights in the complex dynamic ecosystem. They are the basis for elaboration of risk assessment studies to scientifically support management options and decisions to new microbiological threats related to globalization and climate change in the fresh produce supply chain. This research concept as such will contribute to develop strategies in order to guarantee the (microbiological) food safety of fresh produce on the long term. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Various studies have identified high concentrations of acrylamide in French fries and they emphasised that there is much uncertainty about actual concentrations in French fries upon consumption. The aim of this study was to get insight in technological as well as people related factors that contribute to variable and high acrylamide concentrations in French fries prepared under typical food service establishment circumstances. The literature study indicated that glucose and fructose, and actual frying conditions (time-temperature) are the dominant technological factors in acrylamide formation and inadequate control of these factors can result in variable and high concentrations in French fries upon consumption. Analysis of the common control situation in FSE revealed that control decisions on resources by management (i.e. appropriate suppliers, specified raw materials, adequate frying equipment, competent personnel) can be effective in lowering acrylamide formation, but are restricted in practice. However, even under appropriate technological (advanced equipment, low reducing sugars in raw materials) and managerial conditions (competent people, appropriate procedures, etc), it is expected that daily control of food handlers (at receipt and during frying) may be still a major factor contributing to variable concentrations in acrylamide. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The dynamic environment wherein agri-food companies operate and the high requirements on food safety force companies to critically judge and improve their food safety management system (FSMS) and its performance. The objective of this study was to develop a diagnostic instrument enabling a systematic assessment of a company''s food safety management system. This paper discusses core assurance activities, their contribution to assurance, and how to judge these activities in a company''s FSMS. The diagnosis shows which core assurance activities a company executes and at what level, therewith creating a basis for discussion about systematic improvements. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this article, an instrument is presented to diagnose microbial safety control activities in a food safety management system. The need of such a tool is derived from the importance of microbial safety control and the need for improvement of existing control systems. Careful diagnosis of these systems provides the basis for their improvement. The diagnostic instrument provides a comprehensive checklist of crucial control activities, addressing major technology-dependent and managerial activities in design and operation of preventive measures, intervention processes, and monitoring systems. Secondly, it provides detailed grids describing three levels of execution for each safety control activity to enable a differentiated assessment of ones food safety control system situation. The basic assumption underlying the diagnostic instrument is that activities on a higher level are more predictable and better able to achieve a desired safety outcome, due to more insight in underlying mechanisms and more accurate information. Finally, we discuss that using the instrument may contribute in finding effective types and levels of control activities within given contextual dependencies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In the food industry quality assurance (QA) systems such as GMP, HACCP, ISO and BRC, are applied for assuring food quality. However, it is still unknown to what extent these QA systems contribute to the realization of quality. Therefore, an instrument is required that measures the effectiveness of food quality systems. This article analyzes several QA systems, and discusses the development of a conceptual model that aims at developing an objective diagnostic instrument. Successive research can use this instrument to assess performance of food quality systems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Food business operators are challenged to combine requirements from different stakeholders (e.g. government, retailers) into a company specific Food Safety Management System (FSMS). Tools to diagnose the performance of an implemented FSMS (diagnostic tools), tools to help a selection process (selection tools), and tools to improve the FSMS performance (improvement tools) are presented. These tools have been validated in European food processing industries (meat and dairy chain). They are organised towards an on-line freely available FSMS support application which can be used for the internal auditing process. These tools should empower food business operators to improve the performance of FSMS and to produce safer food products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stakeholders entail increasing demands on food safety management systems (FSMS) stimulating ongoing efforts of companies to progress to more advanced systems. However, the actual microbiological food safety (FS) output is not only a result of the performance of an FSMS, but it also depends on the system’s context. Based on the assumption that companies in a high-risk context need advanced control and assurance activities, while in a low-risk context lower levels might be sufficient to realise a good FS output, this paper describes a diagnostic tool to assess riskiness of the context of an FSMS. Four major context factors product, process, organisation, and production chain environment have been described with sets of indicators and grids with descriptions of different risk levels. Finally, the paper discusses how advanced FSMS activities can better deal with a high-risk context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Belgian food safety authority has provided incentives for food business operators to set-up a certified self-checking system (SCS), based upon good practices and HACCP principles. A selection of food processing companies in Belgium was invited to take part in a self-assessment study to evaluate the effect of SCS certification on the performance of an implemented food safety management system (FSMS) and on company's microbiological food safety output according to their sector and company size and to compare the added value of SCS against voluntary standard certification. Results revealed that the majority of food processing companies (90%) were already certified for a voluntary standard such as BRC or IFS prior to or next to the Belgian SCS certification (50%). Although five clusters could be identified among the eighty-two participating companies in the performance profiles of their food safety management system and microbiological food safety output, overall no significant difference could be identified between SCS certified and non-certified SCS food processing companies. However, assurance activities (i.e. set-up of sampling plan, validation and verification of the FSMS) were elaborated at a more advanced, tailored level in SCS certified companies. No significant differences were found according to company size, but depending on the sector more robust FSMS could be identified (e.g. animal products processing sector). The benefits of the widespread presence of a third party certified food safety management system (whether voluntary standard or national SCS) as a basis for governing food safety are also reflected in the favourable inspection results obtained by Belgian food safety authority (76.90%–78.71% compliance in years 2009–2011; 12 823 SCS certified companies being visited) at the processing level. Whereas higher non-compliance in inspection results is noted (47.55–52.45% compliance in years 2009–2011; 4 415 SCS certified companies being visited) in the distribution sector, encompassing a large amount of small food service operations and retail outlets. The introduction of certified SCS is still exceptional in that sector (4.11% in 2011) and the introduction of voluntary standards is less common due to lack of incentives, capacity and resources. Thus, there are indications that a certification system based on audits is an appropriate approach in pro-actively governing food safety and supporting the implementation of control and assurance activities at advanced level, hence increasing the robustness of the food safety management systems as a basis for good microbiological food safety output. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A Food Safety Management System (FSMS) implemented in a food processing industry is based on Good Hygienic Practices (GHP), Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles and should address both food safety control and assurance activities in order to guarantee food safety. One of the most emerging challenges is to assess the performance of a present FSMS. The objective of this work is to explain the development of a Microbial Assessment Scheme (MAS) as a tool for a systematic analysis of microbial counts in order to assess the current microbial performance of an implemented FSMS. It is assumed that low numbers of microorganisms and small variations in microbial counts indicate an effective FSMS. The MAS is a procedure that defines the identification of critical sampling locations, the selection of microbiological parameters, the assessment of sampling frequency, the selection of sampling method and method of analysis, and finally data processing and interpretation. Based on the MAS assessment, microbial safety level profiles can be derived, indicating which microorganisms and to what extent they contribute to food safety for a specific food processing company. The MAS concept is illustrated with a case study in the pork processing industry, where ready-to-eat meat products are produced (cured, cooked ham and cured, dried bacon). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Recent scandals have increased the need to strengthen companies’ ability to combat fraud within their own organizations and across their supply chain. Vulnerability assessments are a first step towards the inventory of fraud vulnerability and fraud mitigation plans. Spices are reported frequently in the international food fraud databases. In the current study the fraud vulnerabilities of various actors in the spices supply chain were examined. The SSAFE food fraud vulnerability assessment tool, which comprises of 50 indicators categorized in opportunities, motivations, and control measures was applied for getting insight into these fraud vulnerabilities. Eight companies participated in the study: a trader, two importers, two business to business companies, and three business-to- business/business-to-consumer enterprises. The ease to adulterate spices combined with the complexity of fraud detection create considerable opportunities to commit fraud (high vulnerability), whereas opportunities associated with supply chain transparency and fraudulent incidences in the past were judged as medium vulnerable. The high competition level in the sector together with the high added value of spices are perceived as important economic drivers to commit fraud (high vulnerability). Cultural/behavioural factors such as ethical business culture were considered to contribute to the actual fraud vulnerability to a lesser extent. The implementation of both the hard and soft control measures varied widely among the actors. Hard fraud specific measures are merely lacking or are at a very basic level. For soft control measures of the own company, the scores were higher. From the results of the full assessments can be concluded that the various actors perceived the level of food fraud vulnerability in the spices chain as medium vulnerable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenes microbial challenge tests were performed on fresh suckling-lamb meat. Hind leg slices were chilly stored under two modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) environments (A: 15%O 2 /60%CO 2 /25%N 2 , B: 15%O 2 /30%CO 2 /55%N 2 ) and vacuum packaging (V). Only E. coli was reduced between 0.72–1.25 log cfu/g from day 1 to day 4 by the combined use of MAP/V, chilling storage and the growth of native lactic acid bacteria. However, L. monocytogenes was not inhibited by the application of V or MAP. Even do, in inoculated samples, this pathogen increased between 1.2–2.7 log cfu/g throughout the study. Consequently, a second experiment that combined the effects of MAP/V and a protective culture ( Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides PCK 18) against L. monocytogenes was designed. Two different levels of protective cultures were assayed (4 and 6 log cfu/g). Lc. pseudomesenteroides PCK 18 was able to control the growth of L. monocytogenes when the differences between them are higher than 2 log cfu/g. Moreover, when high level of protective culture was used a significant reduction of L. monocytogenes counts were noticed in samples packaged in 60% of CO 2 along the storage period, although sensory properties were also affected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent food-borne outbreaks and cases of non-compliances to maximum residue limits of pesticides, indicated that food safety management systems (FSMS) in fresh produce chain are not yet performing in a satisfactory manner. However, the system output is not only dependent on the system design and operation but also on the context wherein it operates. The major context factors that create risk to decision-making in FSMS in the fresh produce chain have been defined in this study, and a tool was developed for their systematic analysis. The tool supports a differentiated assessment of context riskiness, enabling actors in fresh produce chains to take measures in their FSMS or reduce riskiness in the context. The tool can be used at primary production, processing, and trade, and can thus provide insights in the changes of context riskiness over the supply chain. It enables systematic analysis of the context in a product group, sector, or country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The objective of this study was to obtain insight into the actual effectiveness of lowering reducing sugars concentration in par-fried potato strips on the concentration and variation of acrylamide in French fries prepared in real-life situations in food service establishments. Acrylamide, frying time, frying temperature, and reducing sugars were measured and characteristics of fryers were recorded. Data showed that the use of par-fried potato strips with lower concentrations of reducing sugars than the commonly used potato strips was an effective measure to reduce acrylamide concentrations in French fries prepared under standardised frying conditions. However, there was still large variation in the acrylamide concentrations in French fries, although the variation in reducing sugars concentrations in low and normal types of par-fried potato strips was very small and the frying conditions were similar. Factors that could affect the temperature–time profile of frying oil were discussed, such as setting a lower frying temperature at the end than at the start of frying, product/oil ratio and thawing practice. These need to be controlled in daily practice to reduce variation in acrylamide. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Acrylamide is a probable human carcinogen, and its presence in a range of fried and oven-cooked foods has raised considerable health concern world-wide. Dietary intake studies observed significant variations in acrylamide concentrations, which complicate risk assessment and the establishment of effective control measures. The objective of this study was to obtain an insight into the actual variation in acrylamide concentrations in French fries prepared under typical conditions in a food service establishment (FSE). Besides acrylamide, frying time, frying temperature, and reducing sugars were measured and the actual practices at receiving, thawing and frying during French fries preparation were observed and recorded. The variation in the actual frying temperature contributed most to the variation in acrylamide concentrations, followed by the variation in actual frying time; no obvious effect of reducing sugars was found. The lack of standardised control of frying temperature and frying time (due to inadequate frying equipment) and the variable practices of food handlers seem to contribute most to the large variation and high acrylamide concentrations in French fries prepared in a restaurant type of FSE as compared to chain fast-food services, and institutional caterers. The obtained insights in this study can be used to develop dedicated control measures in FSE, which may contribute to a sustainable reduction in the acrylamide intake. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: There is a need to measure the food safety performance in the agri-food chain without performing actual microbiological analysis. A food safety performance diagnosis, based on seven indicators and corresponding assessment grids have been developed and validated in nine European food businesses. Validation was conducted on the basis of an extensive microbiological assessment scheme (MAS). The assumption behind the food safety performance diagnosis is that food businesses which evaluate the performance of their food safety management system in a more structured way and according to very strict and specific criteria will have a better insight in their actual microbiological food safety performance, because food safety problems will be more systematically detected. The diagnosis can be a useful tool to have a first indication about the microbiological performance of a food safety management system present in a food business. Moreover, the diagnosis can be used in quantitative studies to get insight in the effect of interventions on sector or governmental level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]