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There is a renewed awareness of the finite nature of the world's soil resources, growing concern about soil security and significant uncertainties about the carrying capacity of the planet. Regular assessments of soil conditions from local through to global scales are requested, and there is a clear demand for accurate, up-to-date and spatially referenced soil information by the modelling scientific community, farmers and land users, and policy- and decision-makers. Soil and imaging spectroscopy, based on visible–near-infrared and shortwave infrared (400–2500 nm) spectral reflectance, has been shown to be a proven method for the quantitative prediction of key soil surface properties. With the upcoming launch of the next generation of hyperspectral satellite sensors in the next years, a high potential to meet the demand for global soil mapping and monitoring is appearing. In this paper, we briefly review the basic concepts of soil spectroscopy with a special attention to the effects of soil roughness on reflectance and then provide a review of state of the art, achievements and perspectives in soil mapping and monitoring based on imaging spectroscopy from air- and spaceborne sensors. Selected application cases are presented for the modelling of soil organic carbon, mineralogical composition, topsoil water content and characterization of soil crust, soil erosion and soil degradation stages based on airborne and simulated spaceborne imaging spectroscopy data. Further, current challenges, gaps and new directions toward enhanced soil properties modelling are presented. Overall, this paper highlights the potential and limitations of multiscale imaging spectroscopy nowadays for soil mapping and monitoring, and capabilities and requirements of upcoming spaceborne sensors as support for a more informed and sustainable use of our world's soil resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Résumé Les interactions médicamenteuses sont fréquentes en pédiatrie et en pédopsychiatrie. La carbamazépine (CBZ) est un antiépileptique également utilisé en pédopsychiatrie pour son effet thymorégulateur. Elle est connue pour son rôle d’inducteur enzymatique sur différents sous-types des enzymes CYP du cytochrome P450, avec comme conséquence une diminution de la concentration plasmatique de certaines molécules associées. Nous rapportons deux cas de surdosage en CBZ, instaurée à visée thymorégulatrice, chez des adolescentes (14 et 16 ans) hospitalisées en pédopsychiatrie et traitées également par rispéridone associée dans un cas à la fluoxétine et dans l’autre à la loxapine. Ces adolescentes ont présenté des manifestations cliniques typiques (altération de l’état général, signes digestifs, flou visuel). Le surdosage a été confirmé par un taux sanguin élevé de CBZ (17 et 15,5 mg/L pour une fourchette thérapeutique comprise entre 4 et 12 mg/L). Nous recommandons l’instauration très progressive de la CBZ chez les sujets traités par psychotropes, notamment en cas de polymédication. Une surveillance clinique et biologique associée à un dosage sanguin précoce permet de prévenir les effets de surdosage par une meilleure adaptation du traitement. Summary Drug interaction is a frequent situation in pediatrics and child psychiatry. Carbamazepine (CBZ) is an antiepileptic drug used as a mood stabilizer in child psychiatry. CBZ is known to be a potent inducer of various CYP isoenzymes of cytochrome P450, which might result in a decrease in the plasma concentration of associated treatments. We describe two cases of CBZ overdosage in adolescent inpatients (14 and 16 years). The patients were treated with risperidone associated with fluoxetine in one and with loxapine in the other case, and CBZ was introduced as a mood stabilizer. Patients presented typical clinical symptoms (fatigue, dizziness, gastrointestinal signs, blurred vision). Overdosage was confirmed by an elevated CBZ plasma concentration (17 and 15.5 mg/L, therapeutic range 4–12 mg/L). We recommend introducing CBZ very progressively in patients treated with psychotropics, particularly when it is associated to several treatments. An intensification of clinical and biological follow-up with early plasma concentration testing should allow for better treatment adjustment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined the potential of reflectance spectroscopy across the VIS-NIR–SWIR spectral region to identify, ex post facto, the thermal processes that occur in heated soils and minerals, and thus to monitor mineral changes in the soil. We systematically investigated five Israeli soils and six standard soil minerals using a controlled furnace from 150°C to 1000°C (at 50°C intervals). Samples which had been heated and cooled (soils and minerals) were measured for reflectance across the 350–2500nm spectrum using an ASD Field-Pro spectrometer. To confirm the findings extracted from the spectral information, traditional analytical methods (XRD, DTA-DTG, PSD, SEM–EDS) were used. The spectral information was found to be a good indicator for thermal processes occurring in the soil based on mineralogical changes. The spectral changes across different spectral regions provided information about dehydroxylation of goethite to form hematite (VIS-NIR); clay deformation (lattice collapse) due to dehydroxylation processes (VIS-NIR–SWIR); the condition of calcite (SWIR), and indirect processes, such as re adsorption of water and rehydration of the new minerals (e.g. pyrolysis of the calcite product) (SWIR). We propose the use reflectance spectroscopy for post-thermal analysis (RS-PTA), as a valid post-heating diagnostic method for thermal processes occurring in minerals and soils. The suggested method is simple and easy to perform, and can be used in all domains (laboratory and field, point and image) to monitor heat-induced changes in soil minerals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent developments in the monitoring of soil degradation processes have used passive remote sensing (diffuse reflectance spectroscopy) and active remote-sensing tools such as ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and frequency domain electromagnetic induction (FDEM). We have limited our review to three important degradation processes: structural crust, salinity, and soil mineral deformation and alterations caused by fire. These degradation processes, leading to declines in soil fertility and productivity, are commonly viewed in terms of their spatial and temporal distribution and variability, making spatial monitoring tools such as remote sensing the preferred choice. Recent work has shown that a hyperspectral (narrow.bands) approach combined with active remote sensing (FDEM and GPR) can be used to provide detailed, three-dimensional maps of soil salinity status in croplands. Such a map could improve our understanding of salinization mechanisms and salt sources, leading to improved drainage- system planning and management. Another pronounced hazard is structural crust formation following rainstorm events, which decreases soil infiltration, accelerates water runoff, and increases the potential for soil erosion. The spatial distribution of soil infiltration can be assessed using spectral information. Finally, recent studies have shown the potential of hyperspectral spectroscopy to assess and monitor mineralogical, chemical, and physical changes, some irreversible, in post-fire soils. The irreversible changes may serve as a footprint of fire intensity but may also affect the burned ecosystem's recovery. This review should serve as a precursor for future innovative studies of soil degradation processes as well as to open up a new frontier for soil preservation using hyperspectral technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Heterogeneous heat was applied to a homogenous soil surface to simulate a natural fire event. Subsequently cooled soil samples were evaluated spectrally and a spectral–spatial cube was generated corresponding to the burned area. Heat-induced spectral changes associated with thermal effects on soil minerals were observed across the entire spectrum, including: soil color changes (iron-oxide transformation); shifting absorption bands (iron-oxide transformation and illite/calcite ratio); changes in spectral shape (illite/montmorillonite ratio); disappearing absorption features (unknown); and changes in the overall brightness (soot). A model was developed using Partial Least Squares (PLS) to predict maximum soil surface temperatures, measured using thermocouples, from soil spectral reflectance. Thus, this proof-of-concept study demonstrates that soil spectroscopy reveals important information about soil temperature history and as such, represents a promising tool for viewing fire events retrospectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Raindrop energy disintegrates soil aggregates and rearranges soil particles to form a structural crust on the upper soil layer. The structural crust affects the physical properties of the soil, which can be observed by significant colour changes on the soil surface. Spectral differences observed in the structural crust are caused by rearrangement of the soil surface texture, mainly an increase in the clay fraction. Previous studies conducted on crusted soils using reflectance spectroscopy were limited to a certain soil type or area and seemed to be strongly dependent on the small range of soil types. In the current study, the influence of raindrop energy on the NIR-SWIR spectral reflectance (1200–2400 nm) of heterogeneous soils was evaluated and used in combination with partial least squares (PLS) regression to construct a model that correlates the infiltration rate (IR) with its reflectance. Four soils from Israel and three soils from the USA were studied to provide a single data set. A relatively small root mean square error of cross-validation (RMSECV) of 15.2% was found. A ratio of prediction to deviation (RPD) value of 1.98 indicates a promising generic model. Additionally, PLS models were run on different combinations of soil types (RPD values ranging between 2.4 and 3.2). For all models, whether all soils were run in one cross-validation data set, or run for different combinations of soils, the best assessment of IR was achieved when using reduced wavelength range (selected wavelengths based on Martens’ significance test selection). These results allowed us to conclude that a generic approach aimed at assessing the structural crust for a variety of soils is feasible. A generic model using the suggested spectral approach has the potential to provide NIR-SWIR spectral soil IR predictions with either a local or global data base of soils worldwide and may contribute to improved protection of crusted soils from erosion or water loss by runoff. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper systematically derives and analyses the generic phenomenon of space-invariant predictability of spatio-temporal observation fields using past multitemporal observations. We focus on thermal infrared remote sensing as a non-trivial example illustrating the predictability concept. The phenomenon and the systematic analysis thereof are experimentally demonstrated to be productive for developing effective automated anomaly detection and classification methods operating under the assumption of dynamic environment and sensor response. Using a simple preliminary experiment involving uncalibrated tower-based high-resolution thermal infrared surveillance, we test the conceptual validity of the space-invariant multitemporal prediction and exemplify its potential applications. In addition, we use a MODIS thermal image sequence and the task of hot anomaly detection to demonstrate the applicability of the approach for monitoring the status of large territories from space-borne platforms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to apply a novel sensitive technique, involving reflectance spectroscopy in the 400–2500-nm region, to assess dust loads. A spectral library was created to enable identification of the possible sources of settled dust in indoor samples—mineral versus organic–anthropogenic. Two field experiments were carried out at different dates, the first in dwellings and the second in office environments. Two main spectral patterns were found. Type A spectra indicate a high proportion of minerals in the sample and are characteristic of dust samples taken from the dwelling environment during April (when there were 5 dust storm events). Type B spectra denote a high proportion of organic matter in the sample and are characteristic of the dust samples taken from the offices during March (when there were only 2 dust storm events). The spectral shape within the visible range can be used to estimate the relative amount of mineral and organic components in the sample. Multivariate data analysis, based on Partial Least Squares (PLS) regression, was utilized to predict the relationship between the reflectance of a dust sample and its mass. The relative Root Mean Square Error of Predictions (%RMSEP) generated for the dust sampled in dwellings (6.5%) and offices (7.0%) are quite impressive considering the relatively small amounts of settled dust and its precise gravimetric weight accurate to ±0.01 mg (min and max values are 0.1–3.2 mg). In addition, PLS regression analysis was used to identify which variables influence dust load. Possible applications of the proposed method are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Imaging spectroscopy (IS) is a new technique that has attracted the attention of many workers in many disciplines. In the field of soil science, this technology is not well developed and additional research is still required. This is in spite of the fact the soil environment has been already studied from a reflectance perspective by many workers, with much success in providing many soil properties. Going from point to image spectrometry is not only a journey from micro- to macroscales but also a long stage that encounters problems such as dealing with data having a low signal-to-noise level, contamination of the atmosphere, large data sets, the bidirectional reflectance distribution functional effect, and more. In this chapter, we attempt to explore the feasibility of IS for soil science first by reviewing the history of IS in general, and then pointing out the potential of reflectance spectroscopy for soil application in particular. We tried to understand why, although being promising, IS is not presently well developed in the soil sciences field and we provide several explanations and solutions for that. We also explore the difficulties in acquiring and processing IS data in general and for soil in particular. To illustrate the IS potentiality in soil science, we have gathered most of the authors who have worked with soil and IS technology, and provided their and other's case studies in this regard. Soil degradation (salinity, erosion, and deposition), merging IS with other remote sensing means, soil mapping and classification, soil genesis and formation, soil contamination, soil water content, and swelling soils are the issues discussed in this study. We review these case studies and analyze how IS technology can be pushed forward for soil science applications. We assume that education, exposing the technology to end users, as well as governmental involvement are the major factors that require attention in this venue. We also suggest that the IS data be provided to the end users as real reflectance and not as raw data. This is because converting the raw data into reflectance is a complicated stage that requires experience, knowledge, and specific infrastructures not available to many users. This stage stands as a barrier that impedes potential end users, inhibiting workers from trying this technique for their needs. This chapter ends with a general call to the soil science audience to extend the utilization of IS technique and compare the ability of the technique to a "giant" that still needs to wake up. We compare the evolution of the well-developed chemometric technique used to analyze soil properties in the laboratory with the "sleeping" IS technique. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of different combinations of illumination and shaking on the growth dynamics, pathogenicity and toxin production of the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. orthoceras, a biocontrol agent of Orobanche cumana, was studied. The fastest biomass accumulation was obtained under shaking, with or without illumination, with the highest biomass obtained after 3–4 weeks of growth. The biological activity of chloroform extracts of the culture filtrate was characterised: it contained at least two main toxic metabolites that caused necrosis and wilting of various plants and led to mortality of germinating seeds of O. cernua, O. aegyptiaca, O. ramosa and O. cumana. The highest toxic activity of the chloroform extract was obtained under illumination without shaking after 3–4 weeks of growth. The two toxic metabolites were purified and identified as fusaric acid (FA) and 9,10-dehydrofusaric acid (DFA). Both FA and DFA production began in the first week of growth, increasing gradually to their maxima after 4 weeks. The highest level of pathogenic activity of the fungus was obtained after three or more weeks of fungal growth. It can be concluded that in order to produce high levels of toxin and pathogenic activity, the fungus should be grown under illumination without shaking for 4 weeks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Soil rubification is defined as a pedogenesis stage in which iron is released from primary minerals to form free iron oxides that coat quartz particles in soils with a thin reddish film. This study used an airborne hyperspectral sensor to spatially map soil rubification on the surface of coastal sand dunes in Israel. The area selected for this study is located south of the city of Ashdod, Israel, and is one of the last remaining coastal sand dune areas in the country. The study area occupied about 60 km2, and was covered by two flight lines of the CASI 48-channel sensor from an altitude of 2650 m, providing a pixel size of about 3 m. A traditional way to estimate rubification is to chemically measure the iron oxide concentration in the sand. The Dithionite Citrate Bicarbonate (DCB) method, which is a laboratory “wet”-based procedure, was used to precisely measure the free iron oxide status of selected locations along the area. The soil reflectance properties of these samples were measured in the laboratory across the Visible and Near InfrarRed (VIS–NIR) region and was used with the DCB-Fe data to evaluate a spectral-based model for assessing the rubification extent solely from spectroscopy. After the CASI data were atmospherically, BRDF and geometrically corrected, they were run against the spectral model on a pixel-by-pixel basis, generating a rubification map from a far distance. Spectral validation of independent samples and field measurements of dune movement over 17 months showed that the map is reliable and significantly correlated with known stabilization processes throughout the area (the overall accuracy estimated as 78%). It was concluded that soil spectroscopy, either from field or air, enables the detection of small changes in the Fe absorption feature across the VIS region that provides information regarding the iron oxide minerals and content. This supports the utilization of a sensitive airborne hyperspectral sensor to rapidly and quantitatively evaluate spatial information concerning important pedogenic processes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Soil colour carries important information regarding the soil's chemical and physical properties. However, common practices for measuring soil colour, either by Munsell charts or by field/laboratory spectrometers, are insufficient, due to the subjective and nonquantitative character of the Munsell charts, and to the high cost and inconvenience of field spectrometers. We present herein, a method to characterize the colour of soil samples, and related chemical and physical properties of the soil, using a digital camera, and an array of coloured plastic chips, that are used for calibration purposes. Using 370 samples of sandy soils, we have demonstrated that both RGB values from digital images and their derived soil indices, correlate highly with similar measurements performed by a field spectrometer. When checked against free iron oxide content and against the percentage of fine particles in a sub-sample set of 42 soils, the redness index as measured by the digital camera gave similar or better correlations than those obtained from a field spectrometer, against both free iron oxides and fine particle contents ( R 2 of 89% for the iron oxides, and of 81% for the fine particles). We propose the use of a digital camera as a field analytical tool to determine precisely: soil colour, iron oxide and fine particle content. Further study in this direction, with other soil population and more soil properties, is strongly advised in order to launch this as a vastly applicable and generic method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research analyzes and summarizes some thermal behavior of various urban surfaces in time and space using high-resolution video thermal radiometer situated at a height of 103 m, in the city of Tel-Aviv. The physical properties of the various urban elements, their color, the sky view factor (SVF), street geometry, traffic loads, and anthropogenic activity are important among the factors that determine the radiant surface temperature in the urban environment. During daytime, asphalt paved roads and rooftops were found to be the warmest urban elements in our study area. In contrast, exterior walls and trees hold the highest surface temperatures at night. Open spaced surfaces that are exposed to direct solar radiation during daytime and to heat loss at night were characterized by the highest diurnal temperature range. The radiometric stationary experiment revealed the temperature differences between diverse urban coverage to be at most 10 °C; such maximum temperature differences were measured in the early noon hours. The minimal temperatures were observed just before sunrise, when the temperature contrasts (4–5 °C) were smaller than in the early noon hours. The daytime hours between 9–10 a.m. and 5–8 p.m. turned out to be problematic for remote sensing of the urban environment, because the thermal differences between different objects were found to be insignificant. A remote survey aiming to study the urban environment should be conducted twice: in the early morning hours before sunrise (5 a.m.) and in the early noon hours (12–1 p.m.). The knowledge of thermal behavior of various urban components is an important tool for designers and decision-makers. If utilized properly, it can lead to climatic rehabilitation in urban areas and a reduction of the UHI. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The end user often needs to define extremely complex interpretation tasks and to require the analysis results to be quantitatively proven for each pixel without the test data. To this end, this paper extends the ideas underlying the model-based unsupervised classification method previously proposed by us ( Koltunov and Ben-Dor 2001 ). Consistently with that method, the quality of assigning a pixel to a cluster is defined as the lower confidence bound (l.c.b.) of the corresponding posterior probability estimate. We propose to compute the l.c.b.s in an approximate way using the Fisher information matrix instead of the bootstrap scheme suggested previously, leading to an l.c.b.-estimation procedure that is faster by a factor of hundreds to thousands, while being reasonably accurate. The issue of selecting the number of clusters is considered in accordance with the quantitative requirements for the level of detail and the reliability of the thematic interpretation . Specifically, the l.c.b.s form a novel selection criterion that allows the most detailed landscape descriptions to be provided with at least a pre-specified value of confidence. This implies detection of highly overlapping clusters, leading to very detailed segmentations. Consequently, numerous thematic classification and object detection problems can be solved, based on single clustering and assuming that thematic classes are unions of components. Then the thematic classification accuracy can be computed in a well-founded manner for each separate pixel, using the obtained covariance matrices of the posterior probability estimators of component membership. The procedures for thematic mapping and object detection are described. The accuracy of the l.c.b. estimation and stability of the new criterion in choosing the number of clusters are illustrated on simulated datasets. The hyperspectral data analysis experiment performed demonstrates part of the developments described in this paper. Several issues that are relevant for remote sensing data interpretation are addressed constructively. In particular, we draft the novel algorithms that use model-based cluster analysis for detection and recognition of remotely sensed objects based on prior information on their size and shape. In addition, we introduce a generalized approach to unsupervised feature extraction from data acquired by a plurality of sensors of different physical nature. A new data model generalizing the traditional Gaussian mixture model is also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Temporal changes in the stabilization process along the coastal dunes of Israel were assessed using a series of 23 aerial photographs taken over the period 1944–1999. The stabilization rate was then quantified using a specially developed method for the calculation of sand dune movement and by the calibration of the gray-scale images into vegetation cover maps. An episodic reactivation of the dunes during the 1970s was identified and examined with respect to various physical and human factors. The Mediterranean climate along the coast of Israel and the low wind energy are favorable for the stabilization of sand dunes in the absence of human activity. It was shown that military maneuvers and recreational traffic (pedestrians and off-road vehicles) increased fragmentation but did not lead to the reactivation of the dunes. Based on archival records and interviews with officials who have worked in the area over the past 25 years, it was concluded that the apparent changes in the stabilization process should be attributed to changes in the grazing and vegetation cutting practices of Bedouin farmers along the coast of Israel between the late 1960s and the late 1970s, concomitant with the changing policies of successive Israeli governments. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Loss of rain and irrigation water from cultivated fields is a matter of great concern, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. The physical crust that forms on the soil surface during rain events is one of the major causes of increased run-off and reduced water infiltration into the soil profile. Based on previous studies that showed significant correlation between crusted soil and soil reflectance properties, we performed a systematic study over Loess soil from Israel, in order to map the infiltration rate from a remote distance, using Hyperspectral (or Imaging Spectroscopy, IS) technology. First, we simulated rain events under laboratory conditions, using the selected soil and varying rain energy treatments. After measuring the reflectance properties of the crusted soils, we developed a spectral parameter for assessment of crust status. The parameter, Normalized Spectral Area (NSA), uses the area under a ratio spectrum across the VIS-NIR spectral region (calculated from the ratio of the crusted (treated) soil spectrum to the non-crusted soil spectrum). The correlation between the NSA and infiltration rate values provided a significant calibration equation. Based on these results, we conducted an airborne campaign, employing the AISA imaging scanner adjusted to 30-channel data in the VIS-NIR, and established control plots (crusted and non-crusted soil) on the ground, to examine the NSA parameter for mapping the infiltration properties of Loess soils. Reasonable agreement was obtained between the two datasets (laboratory and air), suggesting that infiltration rates can be estimated remotely. Further research is necessary to expand the analysis to other areas and conditions (e.g. diverse CaCO3 and moisture content of soil). The paper shows that spectral reflectance information [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A synthetic data spectral cube that represents at-sensor radiance data of AVIRIS was used to examine the accuracy of several methods to recover absolute surface reflectance data of terrestrial targets. Soil and vegetation targets, selected to represent the images of ground variation and their spectra, were retrieved using HATCH, Empirical Line (EL) and their hybrids methods. After a synthetic radiance data cube was generated, reflectance recovery was carried out and compared with the true (input) reflectance information. It was found that even under controlled and ideal conditions, the spectral recovery using HATCH code provided differences of up to 40%. The EL methods, using the two end-members that represent the scene reduced this difference to about 4%, and in some cases, even to 0.1% It was found that selecting the calibration targets over low water vapor content improved the results. Applying EL on radiance data provided a severe difference of more than 200% in areas located outside the calibration target water vapor zone. Only over similar water vapor zones were the EL methods found to reasonably recover the surface reflectance. Examining the spectral variability in the calibration targets showed that using of spectral features targets with relative spectral similarity is almost as effective as using spectrally featureless targets for the EL process. Applying EL, using external spectral information of possible known targets, revealed a relatively high difference, as compared to the true reflectance data. However, thematic analysis using a SAM classifier proved that even under non-ideal conditions, the EL correction can yield a reasonable spatial mapping capability relative to those obtained under real reflectance domains. It was concluded that EL must be run on reflectance data (generated from absolute based method) over low water vapor zones to provide the most precise reflectance information. Also, it was found that it is not mandatory to select calibration targets that are totally featureless or characterized by low or high albedo response. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Topographic variations affect the reflectance properties of the Earth''s surface and are often removed in remote sensing studies, especially when significant terrain variations exist. In this study, however, we show that shading effects assessed by Landsat can be treated as a signal that stores important topographic information, especially when the spectral characteristics of a surface are homogenous. The coastal transverse dunes of the Ashdod area, and the desert linear dunes of Nizzana (both located in Israel), were selected to investigate the abovementioned idea. The dune heights in these areas are 10 m on average (relative to their surroundings) and have maximum slopes of 33°. An innovative method for extracting slope, aspect, and height data for sand dunes using Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) images was developed, based on the regularity and periodicity of dunes'' landscapes. Using two Landsat images representing different sun zenith and azimuth angles, reflectance values of each image were converted to cos(i) values (i=incident angle between the surface normal and the solar beam radiation), applying histogram matching methods. The slope and aspect of each pixel were determined as those that give the best prediction of the observed value of cos(i). Height profiles were then extracted, using simple trigonometric relationships. The accuracies of heights and slopes along selected profile lines were to the order of 1 m and 3°, respectively (at a spatial resolution of 15 m). Best results were obtained when the images included one from the summer and the other from the winter, corresponding to maximum difference in solar zenith and azimuth angles. Errors in heights were attributed to surface heterogeneity (e.g., presence of biogenic soil crusts in the rainy season), geometric correction errors, cast shadows, and Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) effects. Comparison to Advanced Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) 3D information showed that the proposed method is better in representing the topographic variation of the area than the digital elevation model (DEM) produced by ASTER. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Studies the feasibility of accounting for the crust status solely from the spectral information through the determination of the spectral signature of soil's structural crust in the 1.2 to 2.5 micrometer spectral region. Cumulative rainstorm energy and infiltration rate used; Ratio between sole and crust and built and crust spectra.

In this study, a controlled spectral investigation of the properties of structural crust, using infiltration rate as an indicator, was carried out, on a grumusol (typic chromoxerets) soil. The scope of this paper is to investigate the spectral relationship between structural crust and the infiltration rate and some related properties of a grumusol soil. Structural crust is a thin compact layer generated on the soil's surface after rainstorm events due to raindrop energy. The crust, which is a result of physical segregation and rearrangement of soil particles, affects some of the soil's physical properties, such as infiltration, run-off and soil erosion. A set of soil samples was subjected in the laboratory to increased levels of cumulative energy from a simulated rainstorm, while measuring the infiltration rate. The result was a set of soil samples with increased levels of crusting and correspondingly reduced infiltration rates. After drying the soil samples, their spectral parameters across the SWIR region (1.2 μm-2.4 μm) were studied in the laboratory. Empirical relations were found between the infiltration rate and reflectance values (either in raw or in first derivative domains). A spectral ratio manipulation, using a fog type rain treatment (characterized as having no rain energy) as reference, confirmed that, within the spectrum, changes in both albedo and absorption enabled the crust to be detected using reflectance radiation. This is basically because fine (mostly clay) mineral enrichment processes occurred at the surface of the crusted soil. These minerals (montmorillonite, calcite) are spectrally active across the selected spectral region. Although further study is required to fully account for other soils, rainstorm energies and water qualities, this technique suggests great potential as a tool for rapid, non-destructive, in situ assessment of crusted soil properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The data acquired from the hyperspectral airborne sensor DAIS-7915 over Izrael Valley in northern Israel was processed to yield quantitative soil properties maps of organic matter, soil field moisture, soil saturated moisture, and soil salinity. The method adopted for this purpose was the Visible and Near Infrared Analysis (VNIRA) approach, which yields an empirical model for predicting the soil property in question from both wet chemistry and spectral information of a representative set of samples (calibration set). Based on spectral laboratory data that show a significant capability to predict the above soil properties and populations using the VNIRA strategy, the next step was to examine this feasibility under a hyperspectral remote sensing (HSR) domain. After atmospherically rectifying the DAIS-7915 data and omitting noisy bands, the VNIRA routine was performed to yield a prediction equation model for each property, using the reflectance image data. Applying this equation on a pixel-bypixel basis revealed images that described spatially and quantitatively the surface distribution of each property. The VNIRA results were validated successfully from a priori knowledge of the area characteristics and from data collected from several sampling points. Following these examinations, a procedure was developed in order to create a soil property map of the entire area, including soils under vegetated areas. This procedure employed a random selection of more than 80 points along non-vegetated areas from the quantitative soil property images and interpolation of the points to yield an isocontour map for each property. It is concluded that the VNIRA method is a promising strategy for quantitative soil surface mapping, furthermore, the method could even be improved if a better quality of HSR data were used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the feasibility of using a very sensitive thermal video radiometer to derive information about subsoil objects from the air. In this study we mounted a thermal sensor onboard a helicopter and acquired digital data from an altitude of 1333 m over an archaeological site on the Golan Heights, Israel. The site, namely, Leviah Enclosure, is an Early Bronze Age settlement that is covered by a thin layer of soil. The buried structures, made from basalt, could not be observed from the ground or in aerial photos. However, in the thermal images, the buried basalt structures were significantly enhanced because they have different thermal characteristics than the ground's surface. Based on the thermal images, it was possible to generate a map to use for future excavation activity. Referring to the thermal maps, a selected area was excavated, and verification on the ground, using traditional archaeological methods revealed a positive agreement between the thermal-based map and the actual location of the buried structures. The research highlights the fact that this technology can contribute additional and useful information to the field of archaeology. Based on these results, further study is planned in order to examine the capability of the sensor under different conditions and to further excavate the entire Leviah Enclosure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work examines the feasibility of using detailed spectral information in the visible (VIS) and near-infrared (NIR) spectral region (0.4-1.1 μm) for recognizing the urban environment. This was done by carefully studying pure and mixed spectral based materials from laboratory and airborne imaging spectroscopy (IS) data. The motivation for this study is the fact that although the IS technique has introduced a promising quantitative capability in many applications, it has not yet received attention in urban-related studies. For this study the Compact Airborne Spectral Imager (CASI) IS sensor (which operates in the VIS- NIR region) and the city of Tel-Aviv (Israel's largest city) were selected. A pure spectral library of Tel-Aviv's urban objects within the CASI channel configuration was generated from an existing spectral library. It was shown that even though the VIS-NIR spectral region is rather featureless, objects in the urban environment are characterized by spectral fingerprints. Examining this observation under a real, complex urban IS domain showed that minor spectral variations among targets could be easily used to spatially distinguish similar objects. Water bodies, asphalt pavement, shade, vegetation species and soil in the urban area can be spectrally and spatially recognized and mapped. For the purpose of spectral recognition the IS data must be of high quality (spectrally and spatially), the sensor status should be evaluated and the atmospheric attenuation should optimally be removed. These factors were carefully considered in the performance of this study, and the results, validated on the ground, showed remarkable agreement with reality. It was concluded that the IS technique is promising for use in the urban environment, and it is hoped that this paper will serve as a precursor for future urban-related IS studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structural crust is a thin layer formed on the soil surface after a rainstorm. The crust is the result of a physical segregation and rearrangement of soil particles in a way that affects some of the soil properties, such as infiltration, runoff and soil erosion. In practice, there is no rapid, in situ method for monitoring, assessing and mapping crust intensity and quality. In this study, a controlled spectral investigation of the structural crust across the NIR–SWIR spectral region was conducted on three selected Israeli soils, to study the potential of reflectance radiation to detect structural crust in soils. Two major factors served as the driving forces for this study: (1) there is no valid method for in situ assessment of the crust’s characteristics in the agriculture field, and (2) the crust might bias thematic remote sensing of soils, because the thin layer of crust blocks photon–matter interaction, which represents the relevant soil body. Through the use of a laboratory rainfall simulator and a sensitive spectrometer, it was revealed that for three selected soils, significant spectral differences occurred between the crust and its bulk soil. The spectral information was found to be related to changes in particle size distribution and texture at the surface of the soil. This conclusion was based on indications of absorption of OH in clay lattice, OH in adsorbed water and CO3 in carbonates. It was concluded that the structural crust is a phenomenon that should not be ignored by remote-sensing users. In fact, in the field of agriculture, the spectral properties of crust can be used as tools for estimating the crust’s intensity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Raw hyperspectral data that were acquired over Israel in 1989 by the GER 63-channel scanner were processed to provide surface reflectances seven years after the flight. Because no ground data measurements were available for the time of the flight, four atmospheric correction methods were applied: Atmospheric REMoval program (ATREM), Internal Average Relative Reflectance (IARR), Flat Field (FF) and Empirical Line (EL). Neither the ATREM program, which is an atmospheric model-based method, nor the IARR or the FF techniques, which are scene-dependent methods, were able to provide reasonable results. Whereas the failure of the ATREM program was probably because of a sensor's radiometric problem in the visible (VIS) region, the IARR and FF methods failed because of the relative complexity of the landscape. Of the three EL combinations examined, only one was able to convert the raw digital data into reasonable apparent reflectance information. Processing the data with this combination resulted in a good match between the spectra of selected targets taken from the image and their associated laboratory spectra. Samples, which were collected seven years after the actual flight, were used to assess the ability of each EL correction method to remove atmospheric attenuation. It was concluded that when working with such so-called 'hopeless' data, in order to obtain reasonable results, several combinations of the EL method need to be applied. The results of each method should then be judged, from both a spectral and a spatial perspective, against a separate set of samples, which were not a part of the correction procedure. In this case study, the spectral examination involved 20 samples, and the spatial examination involved two irrigated cotton plots. In the spectral examination, good agreement was obtained between the corrected spectra and the laboratory spectra. During the spatial examination it was possible to distinguish between two cotton plots having different soil water statuses by applying the Spectra Angle Mapper (SAM) classifier. It is felt that careful selection of samples is a prerequisite for achieving reasonable results using the EL correction technique. The samples should consist of albedo information representative of the study area, should have only minor changes related to the passage of time, and should be precisely identified on both the image and the ground. It was concluded that even a 'hopeless' raw data set, such as the current GER data, can be processed to yield reasonable physical information. Assuming that future hyperspectral data taken from orbit will not often be followed by simultaneous ground measurements, the results of this paper are promising. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Determining the mechanical characteristics of rocks is crucial in various civil engineering sectors. Traditionally, the mechanical properties of rocks are determined through on-site and laboratory tests carried out during geotechnical surveys. However, these extensive surveys require considerable time and resources. In contrast, hyperspectral remote sensing techniques offer a rapid and simple means to determine the mineral composition and crystallographic structure of rocks. These features, in turn, influence the rocks' mechanical properties. This study focuses on characterizing the mechanical properties of carbonate rocks in a laboratory setting, using hyperspectral sensors. Approximately 150 cylindrical carbonate rock samples, spanning a wide strength range, were collected from diverse Israeli rock outcrops. Employing a point spectrometer (0.4 to 2.5 µm) and a spectral image sensor (8.0 to 12.0 µm), we captured samples' light reflections and spectral emissivity. Mechanical attributes, including density, porosity, water absorption, and uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), were measured. Advanced data mining techniques identified statistical correlations between hyperspectral signatures and mechanical properties, pinpointing key wavelengths for prediction. The developed models exhibited excellent predictability for the specified properties, attributing accuracy to discernible mineralogy and internal crystalline structure through spectroscopy. However, predicting UCS showed slightly weaker results due to influences from internal flaws not entirely reflected in spectroscopic data. Nonetheless, outcomes regarding rock UCS were deemed satisfactory. These findings open avenues for non-destructive tools in assessing the mechanical properties of rocks in quarrying operations. Highlights: We developed a new method for evaluating the mechanical properties of carbonate rocks using non-destructive spectroscopy. We applied sophisticated data mining techniques to identify statistical correlations between the hyperspectral signatures and mechanical properties of rock samples. We found the key wavelengths for predicting density, porosity, water absorption, and uniaxial compressive strength of the rock samples. The ability to assess the mechanical properties of intact rocks through remote sensing can improve the fieldwork of an engineering geologist. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Visible–near-infrared–shortwave-infrared (VNIR–SWIR) spectroscopy is one of the most promising sensing techniques to meet ever-growing demands for soil information and data. To ensure the successful application of this technique in the field, efficient methods for tackling detrimental moisture effects on soil spectra are critical. In this paper, mathematical techniques for reducing or removing the effects of soil moisture content (SMC) from spectra are reviewed. The reviewed techniques encompass the most common spectral pre-processing and algorithms, as well as less frequently reported methods including approaches within the remote sensing domain. Examples of studies describing their effectiveness in the search for calibration model improvement are provided. Moreover, the advantages and disadvantages of the different techniques are summarized. Future research including further studies on a wider range of soil types, in-field conditions, and systematic experiments considering several SMC levels to enable the definition of threshold values for the effectiveness of the discussed methods is recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Imaging Spectroscopy (IS) is a promising tool for studying soil properties in large spatial domains. Going from point to image spectrometry is not only a journey from micro to macro scales, but also a long stage where problems such as dealing with data having a low signal-to-noise level, contamination of the atmosphere, large data sets, the BRDF effect and more are often encountered. In this paper we provide an up-to-date overview of some of the case studies that have used IS technology for soil science applications. Besides a brief discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of IS for studying soils, the following cases are comprehensively discussed: soil degradation (salinity, erosion, and deposition), soil mapping and classification, soil genesis and formation, soil contamination, soil water content, and soil swelling. We review these case studies and suggest that the IS data be provided to the end-users as real reflectance and not as raw data and with better signal-to-noise ratios than presently exist. This is because converting the raw data into reflectance is a complicated stage that requires experience, knowledge, and specific infrastructures not available to many users, whereas quantitative spectral models require good quality data. These limitations serve as a barrier that impedes potential end-users, inhibiting researchers from trying this technique for their needs. The paper ends with a general call to the soil science audience to extend the utilization of the IS technique, and it provides some ideas on how to propel this technology forward to enable its widespread adoption in order to achieve a breakthrough in the field of soil science and remote sensing. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article reports on the Orobanche crenata parasitism on ornamental anemone in Israel. It mentions that Anemone coronaria L. was the new host for the obligatory parasitic weeds, O. crenata. Anemone is said to be a high value ornamental crop, which is commercially grown for cut flowers. The crop was heavily infected in 2005 by O. crenata. Although no symptoms or visible qualitative and quantitative damage was detected on infected anemone plants, the author declares that anemone appears to be an alternate host on which O. crenata can produce additional seed for the parasite seed bank.

Soil provides ecosystem services, supports human health and habitation, stores carbon and regulates emissions of greenhouse gases. Unprecedented pressures on soil from degradation and urbanization are threatening agro-ecological balances and food security. It is important that we learn more about soil to sustainably manage and preserve it for future generations. To this end, we developed and analyzed a global soil visible–near infrared (vis–NIR) spectral library. It is currently the largest and most diverse database of its kind. We show that the information encoded in the spectra can describe soil composition and be associated to land cover and its global geographic distribution, which acts as a surrogate for global climate variability. We also show the usefulness of the global spectra for predicting soil attributes such as soil organic and inorganic carbon, clay, silt, sand and iron contents, cation exchange capacity, and pH. Using wavelets to treat the spectra, which were recorded in different laboratories using different spectrometers and methods, helped to improve the spectroscopic modelling. We found that modelling a diverse set of spectra with a machine learning algorithm can find the local relationships in the data to produce accurate predictions of soil properties. The spectroscopic models that we derived are parsimonious and robust, and using them we derived a harmonized global soil attribute dataset, which might serve to facilitate research on soil at the global scale. This spectroscopic approach should help to deal with the shortage of data on soil to better understand it and to meet the growing demand for information to assess and monitor soil at scales ranging from regional to global. New contributions to the library are encouraged so that this work and our collaboration might progress to develop a dynamic and easily updatable database with better global coverage. We hope that this work will reinvigorate our community's discussion towards larger, more coordinated collaborations. We also hope that use of the database will deepen our understanding of soil so that we might sustainably manage it and extend the research outcomes of the soil, earth and environmental sciences towards applications that we have not yet dreamed of. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This study examines whether converting the fossil fuel of the Tel Aviv power station from oil to gas influences air pollution in the local urban environment. To this end, the spectral properties of accumulated dust on tree leaves and paper bags were assessed before (2004) and after (2006) the conversion. The sampling site was a garden in a neighborhood located 2700m downwind of the power station. In addition, air pollution concentrations and particulate matter parameters recorded by a local meteorological station were analyzed (PM10, NO x , NO2, NO, and SO2). Although differences in the average monthly concentration of pollution parameters are mostly insignificant between the two periods, the accumulated particulate matter exhibits considerably different spectral patterns. All first period samples exhibit a distinctly concave slope in the spectral region between 400 and 1400nm, indicative of high amounts of soot, most likely due to the combustion products of fuel oil exhausted by the power plant. In contrast, the second period samples exhibit spectra that indicate reduced soot content and even appear slightly convex, evidencing the presence of dust of mineral origin, a feature likely masked by the soot in the first period. Thus, the spectral data support that the power plant conversion results in less pollution. More generally, this study corroborates that VIS-NIR-SWIR spectroscopy characterizes key properties of the particulate layer accumulating on sampled surfaces and thus, is a powerful method for monitoring the urban environment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Phelipanche and Orobanche species (broomrapes) are root holoparasitic plants that cause severe damage to economically important crops. Phelipanche and Orobanche spp. are widespread in Mediterranean areas, in Asia and in Southern and Eastern Europe, attacking dicotyledonous crops and depending entirely on their hosts for all nutritional requirements. Phelipanche aegyptiaca, Phelipanche ramosa and Orobanche cernua are extremely troublesome weeds on tomatoes. These noxious parasites exert their greatest damage prior to their shoot emergence and flowering; therefore, the majority of field loss may occur before diagnosis of infection. This review summarises the four main control measures for the weedy root parasites Phelipanche and Orobanche in tomato, namely chemical and biological control, resistant varieties and sanitation. Some of these methods are commercially widely used by farmers in Israel (chemical control), some are in the final stages of development towards commercialisation (resistant varieties and sanitation), and some still require further development and improvement before commercial implementation (biological control). The review presents an up-to-date summary of the available knowledge on their use for broomrape management in processing tomatoes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: The aim of this paper is to describe the major results of two prospective studies on auditory hallucinations in prépubertal children and the case reports of two children followed three years after inclusion. Methods: Samples of out patients aged five to twelve years old were consecutively recruited over two differents period and followed subsequently twelve and six months. K-SADS interview was conducted to determine DSM-IV diagnoses and all children were interviewed using a questionnaire investigating auditory hallucinations. Results: 151 patients were recruited. Twenty-eight out of the 151 reported auditory hallucinations. For 13 children supportive therapy facilited the children’s full recovery from hallucinations within three months and all of these suffered from separation anxiety. For six children hallucinations persisted over the study period and five of these showed conduct disorders. Out of these six children, two presented a diagnostic of schizophrenia and/or schizophrenic affective disorder at age 14 and 15. Two cases followed three years after inclusions and from the two followed groups are presented and discuss. Conclusions: Our study provides further evidence of the high prevalence of auditory hallucinations in pre-pubertal children. In the majority of cases hallucinations seem non specific and may be a manifestation of anxiety. Although for four children herald the development of a diagnosis of the spectrum of schizophrenic disorders. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Probabilistic classification under the Gaussian mixture model is normally based on posterior probability (p.p.) estimates of class membership. The question, how accurate they are for a given pixel, is traditionally left without attention, which may lead to unreasonable optimism about the classification results obtained. Addressing the issue, Koltunov and Ben‐Dor have proposed an unsupervised, lower confidence bound (l.c.b.)‐based method for thematic interpretation of remote sensing data. This method predicts the sampling properties of the p.p. estimators of a given pixel, to assess reliability of the estimates. The present paper describes a modified version of the method. In particular, instead of defining the l.c. bounds in terms of two first moments of the sampling distribution, as has been suggested previously, we use percentiles. Combining this with a probabilistic model of supervised identification of the mixture components yields the post‐classification uncertainty value for a given pixel and the confidence level, at which this value is proven to be maximal. In the application to an arid landscape in the Southern Negev desert, Israel, the compressed raw hyperspectral data acquired by the Digital Airborne Imaging Spectrometer (DIAS‐7915) was clustered once, whereas two thematic tasks were solved corresponding to different map legends, identification procedures, and the associated requirements to the level of detail and reliability of the thematic maps. The reference data collected in the field have provided evidence for accurate algorithmically estimated confidence bounds of the classification quality. The classification has revealed new information about the geomorphological subunits forming the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Les troubles mentaux graves chez l'enfant et l'adolescent - tels que la schizophrénie, la bipolarité ou la dépression – sont des maladies invalidantes chroniques qui représentent un enjeu important de santé publique. Malgré un traitement médicamenteux adéquat, certains patients présentent une pharmacorésistance et en conséquence souvent une polythérapie. Ces patients sont alors à plus grand risque d'effets secondaires, et à des prises en charges hospitalières ou ambulatoires plus longues. Les psychotropes sont majoritairement métabolisés au niveau hépatique, et pour un grand nombre, par la sous-unité CYP2D6 du cytochrome P450. Une anomalie fonctionnelle de cette sous-unité a comme conséquence un trouble de la métabolisation de ces traitements (inefficacité ou effets secondaires). Plusieurs études ont démontré un lien entre pharmacogénétique et efficacité des traitements. Cette présentation clinique décrit trois patients pharmacorésistants âgés de 13 à 16 ans. Tous présentaient des troubles psychiatriques évoluant depuis plusieurs années et ayant nécessité une ou plusieurs hospitalisations dans un service de pédopsychiatrie temps plein. Les traitements psychotropes ayant l'autorisation de mise sur le marché (AMM) ou couramment prescrits dans notre spécialité se sont montrés sans efficacité clinique sur la symptomatologie de ces adolescents. La prise en charge impliquait alors des polythérapies, des effets secondaires, des hospitalisations répétées avec un retentissement social, familial et scolaire conséquent. Dans ce contexte de résistance aux psychotropes, des tests pharmacogénétiques ont été réalisés. Concernant les deux patients qui ont présenté des anomalies fonctionnelles du cytochrome P450 2D6 type phénotype métaboliseur ultrarapide, les décisions thérapeutiques avaient été révisées en utilisant des psychotropes non métabolisés par CYP2D6 ainsi que des approches non pharmacologiques. Cette réadaptation avait permis une amélioration clinique impliquant une réhabilitation psychosociale. Le dernier patient que nous décrivons ne présentait pas d'anomalie pharmacogénétique du CYP2D6, illustrant le fait que la pharmacorésistance reste un mécanisme complexe ne s'expliquant pas uniquement par une anomalie du CYP2D6. Ce cas clinique nous permet également de nous questionner sur nos pratiques. Severe mental health diseases in children and adolescents–such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder or depression–are chronic impairing diseases representing a major public health issue. Despite adequate pharmacological treatment, some patients will present pharmacoresistant disease and in consequences psychotropic poly-therapy. Those patients are at more important risk to present adverse advents as well as longer in- our outpatient treatment. Psychotropics are predominantly metabolised at hepatic level, and for a high number of them by cytochrome P450 and its CYP2D6 subunit. A functional abnormality of this subunit induces a dysfunctioning of metabolisation of these treatments (inefficiency or adverse events). Several studies demonstrated a link between pharmacogenetics and treatment efficiency. This clinical presentation describes three pharmacoresistant patients aged between 13 and 16 years. All presented psychiatric disease since several years and requiring one or several full-time hospitalisation in a child and adolescent psychiatry department. Psychotropic treatments with market authorization or frequently used in our speciality had been without clinical efficiency for the symptomatology of these adolescents. As a consequence, clinical management implicated poly-therapy, adverse events and repeated hospitalisation with a high impact on social, family and school functioning. In this context of pharmacoresistance, pharmacogenetic testing has been realised. Two patients presented functional pharmacogenetic anomalies of cytochrome P450 2D6 and were ultrarapid metaboliser for CYP2D6. Accordingly, treatment decisions had been revised using psychotropics not metabolized by CYP2D6 as well as non-pharmacological approaches. This readjustement was followed by clinical improvement and psychosocial rehabilitation. The third patient we describe did not present a pharmacogenetic abnormality of CYP2D6 , thus illustrating the complex mechanism of pharmacoresistance, not only explained by CYP2D6 dysfunctioning. This clinical case also allows questioning about our clinical practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Résumé Les psychotropes sont fréquemment utilisés en psychiatrie de l'enfant et de l'adolescent en France avec un taux de prescription en augmentation constante. Néanmoins, peu d'antipsychotiques (AP) atypiques ont une autorisation de mise sur le marché (AMM) chez l'enfant et l'adolescent. De plus, certains patients sont pharmaco-résistants et présentent une inefficacité des traitements psychotropes impliquant des prescriptions hors AMM, de nombreuses molécules, des hospitalisations longues, des rechutes, et des ruptures de parcours de soin. La plupart des traitements psychotropes est métabolisée majoritairement au niveau hépatique par le cytochrome P450 (CYP) et notamment sa sous-unité 2D6. Une duplication du gène CYP2D6 est liée à un phénotype métaboliseur ultrarapide et donc à une inefficacité clinique du traitement. Nous réalisons actuellement une étude dont l'objectif principal est d'étudier la prévalence de duplications et des polymorphismes génétiques du CYP2D6, associés à un phénotype métaboliseur ultrarapide, dans une population d'enfants et d'adolescents pharmaco-résistants aux psychotropes. Le protocole de cette étude est présenté dans cet article. Les objectifs secondaires sont d'étudier l'association de ces anomalies avec les caractéristiques liées au patient et à sa pathologie, ainsi que la recherche d'autres anomalies fonctionnelles du gène CYP2D6. Cette étude inclue 22 patients mineurs de 4 secteurs de pédopsychiatrie ayant présenté une pharmacorésistance à au moins deux psychotropes métabolisés par CYP2D6. La mise en évidence d'un lien entre pharmacorésistance et polymorphismes génétiques du CYP2D6 associés à un phénotype métaboliseur ultrarapide pourrait permettre de privilégier l'utilisation de molécules non métabolisées par le CYP2D6 ayant une AMM très restrictive, plus précocement dans l'évolution de la maladie psychiatrique. Abstract Background Psychotropic drugs such as antipsychotics (AP) and antidepressant (AD) are frequently used in children and adolescents for the treatment of psychiatric diseases, with a constantly increasing prescription rate for atypical AP. Nevertheless, in France, only two atypical AP have marketing authorization in children, and 5 in adolescents. Consequently, a significant part of AP prescriptions in the pediatric population is off-label and depends on the experience of each clinician. In addition, some patients are pharmaco-resistant inducing exposure to several psychotropic molecules, long and/or repeated hospitalizations, relapses, and sometimes interruption of care pathways. Many psychotropic treatments are metabolized at the hepatic level by cytochrome P450 and in particular its subunit CYP2D6. In child psychiatry, most commonly prescribed AP and AD drugs are metabolized by CYP2D6, e.g., risperidone, aripiprazole and fluoxetine. Duplication of the CYP2D6 gene is linked to very rapid metabolizer phenotype and thus typically to clinical inefficiency of treatment. The frequency of this pharmacogenetic anomaly is up to 10 % in the general population in Southern Europe. Methods We describe the implementation of a biomedical study, whose main objective is to describe the prevalence of duplication or polymorphisms of CYP2D6 gene associated with very rapid metabolizer phenotype, in the pediatric population pharmaco-resistant to CYP2D6-mebtalized psychotropic drugs (AP or AD). Secondary objectives are to study the associations between the presence of functional anomalies of CYP2D6 gene and the characteristics related to patient and mental health disease. This study will include 22 children or adolescents patients from 4 child and adolescent psychiatry (CAP) departments. CYP2D6 genotyping will be realized from salivary sampling. Findings The expected results on the main judgment criterion might highlight a link between pharmacoresistance and duplication of CYP2D6 in our patient population. The results on secondary endpoints should help to better characterize the population of drug-resistant patients and mental health diseases in CAP. Perspectives The demonstration of a link between drug resistance and duplication of the CYP2D6 gene should help to develop treatment strategies using molecules not metabolized by CYP2D6 and/or having a very restrictive marketing authorization earlier in the evolution of psychiatric illness, as well as the intensification of non-pharmacological treatment strategies in such patients. Overall, many links between CYP2D6 and psychiatry remain to be studied, and highlighting functional genetic anomalies of CYP2D6 in psychotropic drug-resistant children and adolescents should participate to the development of personalized medicine in CAP, and thus improve the quality of life and the prognosis of our patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cyperus rotundus (purple nutsedge) is considered one of the most noxious weeds affecting agricultural areas worldwide. With its fast growth rate, it competes with annual crops for water, minerals, light and space. It excretes allelopathic materials that impede crop development. Controlling this weed is difficult and is done mostly by manual weeding, cultivation and herbicides, with limited effectiveness. A method was developed for the control of C. rotundus. A machine penetrates the soil and rearranges it, so that the tubers are lifted to the upper soil layer, where they are left exposed to the hot summer climate, dehydrate and die. The method was tested in seven field experiments on various soil types. Two months after the experimental plots were irrigated, 70-100% weed control was observed. The machine's speed (at 1.2 or 1.8 km h−1) and the number of treatments (one, or two treatments a month apart) did not influence the level of weed control. The method has a very high potential to replace manual weeding and application of herbicides. Further work will test whether the treatment has a long-term effect or should be repeated every season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a multi-sensor remote sensing study of physically crusted soil with various moisture contents by using millimetre-wave backscatter radiation. The backscattered radiation was used to generate an empirical model to estimate soil moisture at the thin surface crust scale by using a set of soils with known moisture content as a reference. The model was then used to assess the moisture content of a new set of soils from the same group. Real-time measurement of soil moisture in the top layer beneath the soil crust is impractical at best and impossible using traditional methods. The proposed method, therefore, paves the way to assessing soil moisture content immediately beneath the surface crust as well as in a micro-profile at depths of 0-3 cm. It can be combined with other active and passive remote sensing methods to provide a micro-profile measurement of soil moisture to the depth of the entire upper root zone (0-30 cm) and of the plough layer (0-20 cm) under undisturbed conditions. The method is based on the emerging technology of millimetre waves, which provide improved spatial resolution of the subsurface concurrent with surface mapping. Further development and use of the method described herein will make it simple and practical to analyse and understand the processes governing the soil-water interface. The major processes for which this information is important are soil crusting, water budgets (infiltration, runoff and evaporation) and soil erosion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We study hyperspectral images of the Bodélé Depression in Northern Chad, acquired by the Hyperion sensor onboard EO-1 spacecraft. Relative abundances of four major mineral components are obtained on a pixel-by-pixel basis and we report on the comparison of images of a dust storm with the same areas on a calm day. Minerals lifted and suspended particles downwind of a dust source are thus identified. Linear Spectral Unmixing (LSU) decomposition results for the calm condition match those of our field study. LSU calm vs. stormy comparison, based on absorbance features, highlight the spectral contrast. Despite low contrast above bright areas, morphological dissimilarity is evident via the wave and tongue-like features, aligned with the prevailing northeasterly winds. We analyze the longest part of shortwave infra-red (2080–2380nm) wavelengths where the atmosphere is transparent, optical properties are stable, and absorption features of hydroxyl-bearing minerals, sulfates, and carbonates are pronounced. The results of our spectral analyses reveal that clay minerals may be used as tracers for atmospheric dust monitoring even above bright areas. Such clay minerals include kaolinite, illite-moscovite, and Fe-rich nontronite. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Agricultural landscapes are changing their appearance with the increasing use of man-made plastic materials in covered agriculture (plasticulture) all around the world. As these affect the landscape visually, increase pollution and decrease local biodiversity, better monitoring and planning of their uses and areas are needed. Using a field spectrometer we studied the spectral properties of a sample of polyethylene sheets and various nets used in Israel. We detected three major absorption features around 1218 nm, 1732 nm and 2313 nm. These were not affected by settling dust, whitewashing or by the underlying surface, but were not apparent in black coloured polyethylene sheets or nets. A hyperspectral AISA-ES image with a spatial resolution of 1 m achieved a detection accuracy of above 90% for bright sheets and nets but of only 70% for the black nets. The best spectral feature for plastic mapping was found to be that around 1732 nm as it does not coincide with spectral features of other minerals, soils, vegetation or atmospheric attenuation. As most of the greenhouses patches in Israel are smaller than 3200 m2, the optimal spatial resolution of a sensor for mapping them should be equal or better than 8–16 m. As a result of their low spectral and spatial resolution, Landsat images proved inadequate for mapping greenhouses, and strengthen the need of hyperspectral technology for that end. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]