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Hydrothermal carbonisation (HTC) has the capability to convert wet biomass such as sewage sludge to a lignite-like renewable solid fuel of high calorific value. However, to date assessment of the energy efficiency of the HTC process has not been fully investigated. In this work, mass and energy balances of semi-continuous HTC of faecal waste conducted at 200 °C and at a reaction time of 30 min are presented. This analysis is based on recovering steam from the process as well as energy from the solid fuel (hydrochar) and methane from digestion of the liquid product. The effect of the feedstock solids content and the quantity of feed on the mass and energy balance were investigated. The heat of reaction was measured at 200 °C for 4 h using wet faecal sludge, and the higher heating value was determined for the hydrochar. The results indicated that preheating the feed to 100 °C using heat recovered from the process would significantly reduce the energy input to the reactor by about 59%, and decreased the heat loss from the reactor by between 50% and 60%. For feedstocks containing 15–25% solids (for all feed rates), after the process is in operation, energy recycled from the flashing off of steam and combustion of the hydrochar and would be sufficient for preheating the feed, operating the reactor and drying the wet hydrochar without the need for any external sources of energy. Alternatively, for a feedstock containing 25% solids for all feed rates, energy recycled from the flashing off of steam and combustion of the methane provides sufficient energy to operate the entire process with an excess energy of about 19–21% which could be used for other purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrothermal carbonisation of primary sewage sludge was carried out using a batch reactor. The effect of temperature and reaction time on the characteristics of solid (hydrochar), liquid and gas products, and the conditions leading to optimal hydrochar characteristics were investigated. The amount of carbon retained in hydrochars decreased as temperature and time increased with carbon retentions of 64–77% at 140 and 160 °C, and 50–62% at 180 and 200 °C. Increasing temperature and treatment time increased the energy content of the hydrochar from 17 to 19 MJ/kg but reduced its energy yield from 88% to 68%. Maillard reaction products were identified in the liquid fractions following carbonisations at 180 and 200 °C. Theoretical estimates of the methane yields resulting from the anaerobic digestion of the liquid by-products are also presented and optimal reaction conditions to maximise these identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Solids decomposition and hydrochar production modelled by first order kinetics. [•] Arrhenius rate constant characterisation of sewage sludge carbonisation. [•] The activation energy of synthetic faeces was higher than that of sewage sludge. [•] Reaction temperature had more effect on solids decomposition than reaction time. [•] Feedstock moisture content affected hydrochar yield and extent of carbonisation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The crushing strength of enzyme-treated and untreated sunflower kernels were measured in terms of compressive force and deformation at cracked point using Lloyd Tensometer provided with a 500 N compression load cell. This was done to determine the effect of enzyme action on sunflower kernel cell-wall structure, the extent of the cell-wall disruption by the enzymes, and how this could affect oil extraction systems. Four varieties of cell-wall degrading enzyme preparations were used. Deformation values for all the enzyme treated kernels were found to be lower than those for untreated kernels under both horizontal and vertical kernel loading positions. The enzyme treated kernels required lower compressive force to crush than the untreated kernels in all loading positions. Among the various enzymes, 'Viscozyme' treated kernels gave the lowest force to initiate crack. Thus, the extent of kernel cell-wall disruption was found to depend on the type of enzyme used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]