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Enhancing the dynamic properties of expansive soils using cementitious materials has attracted the attention of many researchers over the past few decades. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) can be used as partial substitutes for cement owing to their pozzolanic activity that further improves the mechanical performance of cement-stabilized soils upon curing. In this study, the effect of cement and zeolite incorporation on the mechanical behavior of expansive clay was quantified using the pressure wave velocity (Vp) indicator obtained from ultrasonic pulse velocity tests performed at different curing times. Furthermore, a polynomial model was developed to establish the relationship between Vp and zeolite replacement levels at specific curing times and cement contents. The results show that a polynomial function captured the decreasing trend of Vp upon the increase in zeolite at curing times below 14 days. Additionally, the developed equation explained the upward trend of Vp owing to the pozzolanic activity of zeolite at later curing times with an accuracy of over 92%. The coefficients of the polynomial model also increased with the increment of the cement percentage which conformed to the consecutive rise in Vp. Ultimately, the polynomial coefficients were expressed in terms of cement content and curing time using the Volterra series. Using this model, the optimum percentage of cement replaced with zeolite (Zopt), the efficiency of using Zopt instead of cement, and the percentage of zeolite replacement to achieve equivalent Vp of cemented clay samples (ZC) were estimated. The findings of this study contribute to promoting geotechnical sustainability by replacing cement with zeolite that has a considerably lower environmental footprint. Clay is a type of soil that can be found in many construction projects. For instance, many roads and buildings' foundations are constructed on clay soils. To ensure the necessary strength of the clay under the main structure, the soil should often be stabilized using adhesive construction materials such as cement. Interestingly, a portion of the cement could be replaced with other minerals not only to improve engineering performance but also to promote sustainability by lowering cement consumption. In this study, the effect of zeolite as a partial replacement for cement on the strength of clay soils was experimentally evaluated. The effect of various design parameters, such as cement replacement level and curing time, on the stability of clays was investigated using an advanced technique called the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test. Furthermore, a simple mathematical model was proposed based on the experimental results to help engineers design the stabilization plan and timely decide about the next steps of the construction process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pore-size distribution (PSD) of soil is a fundamental property that determines flows of water, heat, chemicals, and electricity and controls distributions of stress and deformation. PSD can be intrinsically related to the soil–water retention curve (SWRC), which is a constitutive relationship describing how the soil skeleton retains pore water via adsorption and capillarity. A general framework to quantify soil's PSD is proposed by first fitting an analytical SWRC model to experimental water retention curves that explicitly separate the SWRC into an adsorptive SWRC and a capillary SWRC. The PSD is then estimated at incremental steps by combining the capillary SWRC and the conventional Young–Laplace equation relating capillary pressure to pore size. Cumulative and density PSD curves for 11 soils covering a wide spectrum of soil types are determined and compared with the PSD functions independently measured using mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). Good agreement is observed in the estimated pore size range, distribution pattern, and peak position determined from the two different methods. Differences observed in the methods are attributed to differences inherent in the use of wetting and nonwetting fluids to probe the pore space. The SWRC-based method generally characterizes pore sizes ranging from 100 to 0.02 μm with a major peak located within a pore diameter range of 1–10 μm. As the clay content increases, a secondary peak becomes evident at smaller pore sizes (about 0.01–0.1 μm), where the bimodal pattern reflects the dual-porosity microstructure commonly observed for clayey soils. For soils containing swelling clays, PSD can change substantially with variation in water content; thus, the water-based method is more appropriate than MIP for applications to geotechnical engineering practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New ways to apply sustainable materials, such as biomass components, are essential for reducing dependence on fossil fuels. This work investigated the engineering properties of unsaturated expansive subgrade soils stabilized by bio-based energy coproducts containing lignin. Lignin is a waste by-product of the paper and pulp industry that is frequently burned. Highway subgrade could consume lignin as an environmentally benign, low-cost, and energy-efficient chemical substance for soil stabilization. Swell and shrink behavior of expansive subgrade soils complicates highway construction and causes damage to existing highways. However, research on the hydromechanical properties and volume change behavior of lignin-stabilized expansive soil is limited, and better insight is required into its unsaturated behavior for safe and economical pavement design practices. In this research, a series of geotechnical laboratory tests were conducted to characterize expansive subgrade soils treated with lignin by determining the Atterberg limits, compaction and consolidation behaviors, swelling characteristics, and water retention properties. The mechanisms influencing the changes in engineering properties of lignin-treated expansive soils were further investigated using soil pH, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis. The study shows that the optimal lignin content contributed to an acceptable degree of soil stabilization. The lignin-based cementing material effectively bonds soil particles together and fills pores, thereby preventing water infiltration into the soil and reducing the swell–shrink potential of stabilized soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In nature, expansive soil is generally in a state of swelling during rainfall, and its soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC) exhibits a three-dimensional space shape under the action of an increasing void ratio. In this study, expansive soil from Hefei, China, was used. SWCC and hygroscopic tests were performed. A three-dimensional hygroscopic swelling mathematical model of the dry density–void ratio–saturation degree was constructed based on the volume change behavior of expansive soils resulting from the hygroscopic test. In addition, depending on the variation in suction with the saturation degree of expansive soil under different values of dry densities, an SWCC mathematical model considering the swelling effect was constructed. The three-dimensional surface model of the hygroscopic swelling of the expansive soil was steeper in the lower saturation degree area. As the saturation degree increased, the three-dimensional surface gradually became flat. The SWCC model of the expansive soil under the action of swelling in a three-dimensional space is an S-shaped surface. The model exhibited dynamic changes in the suction and saturation degrees as the dry density of the soil decreased continuously. The model comprehensively revealed the hydraulic and swelling properties of expansive soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Freeze–thaw cycles can deteriorate the expansive soil performance. Phase change materials (PCMs) absorb and store heavy latent heat from the environment, which can be utilized to mitigate freeze–thaw deteriorations in expansive soil. In this study, an environmentally friendly paraffin-based PCM was selected, which included two different forms: liquid (pPCM) and microcapsules (mPCM). The volume change, mechanical properties, thermal properties, and microstructure of the improved soil were studied. These results showed that PCMs can release considerable thermal energy during phase transitions, which improves the thermal stability of the soil. The pPCM enhanced the plasticity of soil and prevented brittle failure; mPCM reduced the damage to the soil microstructure caused by freeze–thaw cycles. Macroscopically, it weakened the swell–shrink behavior and limited the degradation of the resilient modulus, unconfined compressive strength, and failure strain of expansive soil. The optimal PCM content was determined based on the mechanical and thermal properties of the improved soil. This study provides a new idea for the engineering treatment of expansive soil in cold regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Expansive soils are extremely susceptible to swelling and shrinkage associated with seasonal changes in their moisture content. This can cause serious damage to structures constructed on expansive soils. Stabilization using additives is widely used to mitigate the concerns of expansive soils by controlling the changes in volume, thereby increasing the strength and durability of the soils. Multistabilizers, including a low percentage of conventional additives with nonconventional additives, can reduce the costs of stabilization. The performance of the stabilized soil can be enhanced by admixture optimization to ascertain that the agent's ratios are quite adequate to meet the optimal levels of modification. Unfortunately, despite the development of advanced techniques for investigating the stabilization of expansive soil, limited studies are devoted to the optimization of admixture to soils. Hence, in this research, an approach based on rough set theory, a mathematical data mining approach, is presented for multiagent optimization for efficient treatment of expansive soils. The multiadditives used in this study are almond shell ash (ASA), volcanic rock dust (VRD), and portland cement (PC). The differential free swell test, the California bearing ratio test, and the unconfined compressive strength test were applied for assessing the characteristics of the stabilized soil specimens. The obtained results and the confirmatory tests demonstrated that a combination of 20% ASA and 20% VRD with 8% PC provides the optimum results in the properties of expansive soil. The microstructural analysis denoted an enhanced modification of the soil engineering properties. The outcomes of this research confirm that the rough set optimization procedure is highly suitable for application in multiagent optimization for the efficient treatment of expansive soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cement composite soil is a more stabilized method in expansive soil foundation projects, but it is essential to find an ecofriendly modification material to reduce the content of cement and its pollution for the environment. A series of unconsolidated–undrained (UU) triaxial tests were conducted to investigate the modification effect of graphene oxide (GO) on cement-stabilized expansive soil (CS), and the contents of GO were 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.15%, and 0.2%, respectively. The test results show that (1) the deviatoric stress–strain curves of CS gradually change from a weakly softening type to a strongly softening one after adding GO. (2) The compressive strength, shear strength, and toughness of GO-modified cement-stabilized expansive soil are better than CS, and the optimal GO content is 0.05%. (3) Microscopic tests show that GO can promote the hydration reaction of cement and reduce the internal pores of CS. Consequently, the mechanical properties and microstructure of CS can be significantly improved after adding GO, and it is feasible to replace a part of the cement with GO in expansive soil foundation projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present work aims to evaluate expansive soil stabilization using different additives. Twenty soil mixtures consisting of 10%, 20%, 25%, and 30% zeolitic tuff (ZT) with 2%, 4%, and 6% lime in various combinations were used to stabilize the soil for pavement subbase application. A comprehensive test program, including Atterberg's limits, compaction, unconfined compression strength (UCS), California Bearing Ratio (CBR), resilient modulus, and permanent deformation, was performed on natural and stabilized soil specimens. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) supplied with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX) was used to confirm the study findings. Adding ZT increases the availability of the silica and alumina needed for the pozzolanic reaction; test results revealed that adding ZT increases the maximum dry unit weight, CBR, UCS, resilient modulus, decreases plasticity, and permanent deformation. As such, ZT can improve the physical and mechanical properties of lime-stabilized soil as a pavement's subgrade and subbase layers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the different geotechnical characteristics of soil stabilization with the addition of lime and rice husk ash (RHA) in varying amounts (3%, 5%, 7%, and 9% lime, and 4%, 8%, 12%, and 16% RHA). A series of compaction, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), California bearing ratio (CBR), pH, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) tests were performed in the laboratory to assess the impact of the considered admixtures on the stabilized soil parameters. This study also proposes the successful integration of an artificial neural network (ANN) and a Gaussian process regression (GPR) with the experimental UCS observations. The lime concentration, RHA concentration, and curing period were considered as the input parameters, and UCS was considered as the response. The proposed framework was extended to analyze the compressive behavior of treated soil on the minuscule level. Such coupled machine learning-based experimental investigation can provide deep insight into the soil behavior which otherwise would have remained unexplored due to the prohibitive nature of performing laboratory experiments on a large scale. The findings demonstrated the effectiveness of RHA in addition to lime in stabilizing the considered expansive soil. With the addition of lime and RHA mix, the UCS and CBR values of the treated soil increased significantly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A soil water unit weight of 9.8 kN/m3 has been universally considered to quantify soil volumetric phase properties such as void ratio and degree of saturation, but has been found to greatly vary depending on soil type and the volume scale with which it is defined. Recent experimental and theoretical evidence has indicated that the unit weight of soil water can be significantly greater than 9.8 kN/m3 for clayey soils when gravimetric water content is less than 30%. A soil water unit weight as high as 18.8 kN/m3 is evident for some expansive soils at low water content. The significance of abnormally high water unit weight in quantifying soil phase volumes, saturation, and void ratio was experimentally assessed for various clayey soils and theoretically interpreted as a function of water content and soil type. For clayey soils with low liquid limit, average soil water unit weight can be as high as 12.5 kN/m3 for gravimetric water content less than 10%. This leads to an overestimation of liquid-phase saturation and void ratio by as much as 8% if a soil water unit weight of 9.8 kN/m3 is used. For clayey soil with a high liquid limit, the average soil water unit weight can be as high as 18.8 kN/m3 for water content less than 18%, leading to overestimation of liquid-phase saturation by as much as 36% and void ratio by as much as 20% if 9.8 kN/m3 is used. Charts were developed to estimate average soil water unit weight as a function of soil specific surface area and water content, and as a function of liquid limit and water content. The commonly used value of 9.8 kN/m3 for water unit weight can lead to significant errors in estimating phase volumes, void ratio, and saturation for clayey soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the suction induced by stress release was investigated by measuring the suction of instantaneously unloaded MX80 bentonite specimens after wetting in an oedometer either under different vertical stresses or under a constant-volume condition. Swell-consolidation tests were also performed, and the results were compared with those of specimens wetted under different vertical stresses or a constant-volume condition. The microstructure of the unloaded specimens was investigated using mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). The water content and void ratio as well as the degree of saturation of specimens were also determined. Results showed that in the case of limited water exchange between macropores and micropores during stress release, the change in suction was equal to that of stress (−ds/dσv=1). By contrast, with water exchange between macropores and micropores, soil swelling occurred, and the variation of suction was higher than that of stress (−ds/dσv>1). A method was proposed allowing such water exchange between macropores and micropores to be determined (−ds/dσv−modified=1 , where σv−modified is the modified stress considering water exchange), evidencing the macropore drying due to stress release. Comparison of results from MX80 bentonite and other clayey soils showed that when the nonclay (grains such as quartz, calcite, and so on) fraction (NCF) was lower than 35% by mass, NCF had an insignificant effect on −ds/dσv−modified (equal to 1). By contrast, in the case of higher NCF (>35%), −ds/dσv−modified became lower than 1, and the higher the NCF, the lower the −ds/dσv−modified value. These findings provide useful information for better understanding the mechanism involved at the microstructure level in the stress/suction coupling during stress release in clayey soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the effectiveness in the improvement of clay soils of using geopolymers of fly ash (FA), metakaolin (MK), or blast furnace slag, activated by an alkaline solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH), sodium silicate (Na2SiO3), or a mixture of both. The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of samples cured for 1, 7, and 28 days was determined, and X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy were performed to record the mechanical, chemical, and mineralogical behaviors of the stabilized soils. The results showed an increase from 149.72 kPa (untreated clay) to 460.06 kPa for the clay soil treated with NaOH after 1 day of hardening. The highest UCS was obtained using a MK-based geopolymer (MKG) at 28 days. Oedometric testing showed a reduction in the swelling potential of the clay soil and a decrease in the swelling pressure from 600 to 300 kPa. It was found that all the tested treatments significantly improved the geotechnical properties of the clay soil. However, the MKG treatment was most effective in terms of increased resistance, while the FA-based geopolymer (FAG) provided better results in terms of reducing swelling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the case of roadways, although numerous observations have confirmed that environmental longitudinal cracks induced by expansive clay subgrades often develop at the edge of a roadway, the actual location of such cracks may occur at locations within the roadway. These moisture pathways further contribute to moisture increase in the underlying expansive clay subgrade, ultimately triggering additional longitudinal cracks and uneven roadway deformations. Moisture sensors in the subgrade of a FM2 test section: (a) layout of horizontal moisture sensor array; and (b) moisture content isochrones. [Extracted from the article]

Soil suction–based analyses are paramount to proper design of foundations in expansive soils, yet availability of field soil suction profiles from direct measurement is limited. A method was developed, using directly measured suction profiles obtained from sites across the US, by which routine geotechnical tests can be used to estimate soil suction to expand the database for estimation of field suction profiles. Herein, the expanded database is used to develop best-estimate clay soil suction envelopes for boundary conditions associated with covered or uncovered ground surface subjected to natural climatic surface flux. Where appropriate for site conditions, the proposed soil suction profile envelopes can be used with any suction-based heave/shrinkage analysis. Key features of the field suction envelopes, consistent with current popular approaches, include climate-dependent estimates for equilibrium suction at depth, depth to equilibrium (stable) suction, and variation in soil suction at the ground surface. Comparisons to existing soil suction envelope recommendations are made. Finally, a limited number of cases of developed/irrigated sites are presented for comparison to soil suction profiles obtained for natural climatic surface flux conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results of the unconfined compressive strength tests provided in the paper under discussion show the highest shear strength obtained with the geotextile layer placed at a similar depth. On the other hand, from the results shown in the figure, it appears that the direct shear test consisted of only one layer of geotextile located at midheight in the shear box mainly to determine the resistance it afforded. Apart from tests reported as having been done thrice in relation to the direct shear box test, no mention is made whether the same scheme was used for the swelling and unconfined compressive strength tests. Is it to be interpreted as the result for the unreinforced sample added to the result for the geotextile layer, or is it to be interpreted as the result for only the geotextile layer?. [Extracted from the article]

The original paper explicitly reports that large direct shear tests were performed to quantify the shear strength of geotextile-reinforced expansive soil subgrade. The writers agree with the discusser about the critical soil mechanics of geotextile-reinforced and unreinforced expansive soil; however, in the original scope of work was limited to and focused on assessing the interface efficiency of geotextile-reinforced expansive soil. 6(b-d), which compared different configurations of the geotextile layer test sections with the unreinforced expansive soil test section. [Extracted from the article]

This paper presents a closure to "Full-Scale Field Studies to Evaluate Deep Soil Mixing in Stabilizing Expansive Soils" by Anand J. Puppala, Raja S. Madhyannapu, and Soheil Nazarain. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002647. The discusser pointed out that the presence of alkalines and acids in the soil or groundwater could influence the performance of deep soil mixing based on lime and cement stabilizers. [Extracted from the article]

This paper presents a discussion of "Full-Scale Field Studies to Evaluate Deep Soil Mixing in Stabilizing Expansive Soils" by Anand J. Puppala, Raja S. Madhyannapu, and Soheil Nazarain. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002647. The authors utilized the deep soil mixing (DSM) technology to modify a heavily overconsolidated swelling clay soil in situ to determine the efficacy of the DSM treatment of expansive soils and presented the results obtained from the instrumented full-scale field tests undertaken. [Extracted from the article]

This paper presents as a discussion of "Performance Evaluation of a Highway Slope on Expansive Soil in Mississippi" by Mohammad Sadik Khan, Masoud Nobahar, Mike Stroud, Sean Ferguson, and John Ivoke. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0002240. Repairs to the failed section of the slope were undertaken a few months following the initial slope construction and were carried out by removing the failed soil and replacing it with a backfill that was less plastic, and therefore, not as swell-prone as the original soil. This approach versus the traditional approach when determining the factor of safety of slopes that used the limit-equilibrium method was considered more appropriate to account for the physical changes within the soil matrix that would occur during its wetting and drying cycles. [Extracted from the article]