Search

Background: Hitherto, no instrumental research has been designed to measure the addiction potential for children in Iran. Therefore, the questionnaires designed to investigate addiction were examined in this systematic review article. Methods: In the present systematic review, all Iranian and foreign research on addiction potential for children were examined until March 2022. Using separate keywords and their Latin synonyms according to Mesh terms, an extensive search was conducted in databases: PubMed, Magiran, Iranmedex, Medline, Google Scholar, SID, and Irandoc. In total, 173 Farsi and English papers were included in the initial list, and after evaluation according to the Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (MOOSE) checklist and acceptance criteria, 43 final papers were selected for systematic review. Findings: Through searching in Persian and English databases and using related keywords, 173 papers were found in the initial search and after removing duplicates and unrelated studies, 43 papers were selected for systematic review. In this research, papers related to the addiction potential between 1998 and 2019 were considered, and among these, 22 papers particularly dealt with addiction. In the conducted studies, the awareness, attitude, talent, and factors affecting addiction were mostly measured and in some papers, addiction potential was measured. Conclusion: Designing psychometrically appropriate tools is necessary to measure the addiction potential of children in Iran. Due to the unavailability of appropriate tools and the fact that the previous versions are not up to date and are not checked regularly, for better and more complete decision-making in the health policy-making process more investigation in this field is necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper focuses on the role of audio/visual mass media news in language learning. In this regard, the two important issues regarding the selection and preparation of TV news for language learning are the content of the news and the linguistic difficulty. Content is described as whether the news is specialized or universal. Universal contexts are likely to be more comprehensible than specialized contexts. As for the linguistic difficulty, it consists of acoustic, lexical/syntactic and text-type difficulties. Accordingly, audiovisual texts with greater iconic combinations are likely to be more comprehensible for language learning. Moreover, the present paper provides empirical evidence of the role of exposure to news from mass media on speaking fluency.

The purpose of this research was standardization through a test construction by addressing the assessment of validity and reliability of Reid's English language learning styles among high school students. This research was of quantitative approach. In this paper, 357 (189 females and 168 males) high school students in Isfahan Province on 2013-2014 academic year were randomly selected using stratified sampling method. They were asked to fill Reid's English language learning styles' questionnaire. The questionnaire was assessed in terms of content validity, construct validity, face validity, and factor validity. Likewise, its reliability was confirmed by assessing its internal consistency using a split-half method. LISREL 8.5 and SPSS Software, Version 19, were used for its statistical calculations. The results indicated that Cronbach's alpha coefficients were strong for all subscales and the overall scale of psychometric measurement. Moreover, confirmatory factor analysis revealed a good fitness for the scale. Results of split-half method also indicated that coefficient of test reliability was desirable. Therefore, considering the results, it can be said that the Persian version of the language learning style questionnaire demonstrated an acceptable validity and reliability. Findings of this study can be useful for Iranian high school students to improve their learning status because their native cultural milieu and their own educational structure were under focus which consequently leads to the discovery and innovation of new teaching and learning methods to improve their knowledge in each area, and new learning styles can be discovered based on their own special condition.

Purpose: This research aims to convert the traditional teacher-student models, in which teachers determine the learning resources, into a flexible structure and an active learning environment so that students can participate in the educational processes and value co-creation in virtual academic learning environments (VALEs). Design/methodology/approach: Mixed-methods (qualitative-quantitative) approach has been used. First, to develop the primary framework, papers were content-analyzed. Then, to validate the results of the content analysis, responses of the questionnaires distributed among students and teachers at five virtual universities in Iran were analyzed. Findings: VALEs have the value co-creation potential. The students and teachers in this sample identified and confirmed three dimensions including partnership requirements (including organizational capabilities, structural requirement, individual competencies, motivational factors and resources), collaborative learning services (including IT infrastructure, common services and educational services) and social networks. The foundation of value co-creation is a partnership requirement. Collaborative learning services are flexible services that redesign methods and curriculum and promote deep learning among students. In addition, the wide use of social networks enables dialogue, communication, participation and establishment of virtual learning groups. Practical implications: By means of the suggested framework, it is possible to achieve value co-creation in VALEs. Originality/value: The paper presents outcomes of the research that is focused on technical, human and organizational aspects for value co-creation in VALEs that have not been much discussed previously.

Leadership is an important component in guiding the teaching-learning process. Principal as school leaders have a major responsibility for initiating and implementing school change through the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and can facilitate complex decision to integrate it into learning, teaching and school administration. Hence, educational leaders must understand, promote and implement the notion that technology integration is not about the technology; it is about focusing on the future generations and leading teachers to a change in pedagogy. However, few studies have empirically examined computer use by principals, their perceived computer competence and their leadership style. This paper will report on these issues from an initial analysis of a baseline data gathered from 30 secondary school principals in Tehran, a large province in Iran. Findings indicate that school principals are using computers for instructional and administrative purposes and they have moderate competency in computer applications. This paper also suggests that the idea of transformational leaders can enhance the computer use in schools. Hence, policy makers must design professional development programs, such as leadership studies, in order to teach the components of transformational leadership; idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individual consideration to future administrators.

In spite of the existence of several educational resources in the field of language teaching as well as the quick growth of advanced technologies, educational textbooks still play a major role. This explains the significance of designing and evaluating textbooks in countries where language instruction is highly textbook-oriented. The present paper reports the results of a summative evaluation of the textbook 'Prospect 1' which is employed across the nation for zero beginners at junior high school. To this aim, the motivational design of the book was evaluated using Keller's ARCS model recognized as one of the most effective models. Based on the analysis of the survey and interview data it was observed that in general the students' motivation for this book is desirable. The findings also indicated that this book is more effective in the Confidence area followed by Relevance. On the contrary, it was found out that the students' Satisfaction and most of all Attention were not desirable. The findings of this study verified in general that this book has a suitable motivational design. However, it is suggested that the related amendments for improving the desirability for the Satisfaction and Attention areas be implemented.

One of the challenging issues that has gained much attention, and has in fact sparked much debate, within the emergence and acquisition of World Englishes, is the Native- Non-native accent, especially its relationship with teachers' and learners' identity and selection of an appropriate pedagogic model. This paper investigates the attitudes of 260 English teachers from India and Iran as members of Outer and Expanding Circles, respectively. Using a questionnaire, this study measures cognitive, affective and behavioral attitudes of teachers towards their own English accents in two circles which include the most users of English in the globalized world. The results show that teachers in the Expanding Circle (Kachru, 1992), compared to those in the Outer Circle, had an exonormative orientation, favoring native-speaker and mostly American English pronunciation. Indian teachers were in favor of endonormativity, highly valued their local forms of English while they were in favor of British English. Teachers' preferences will be discussed with consideration of the historical and political backgrounds of the two countries which might have influenced the construction of teachers' identity. The results of this study suggest that, together with encouraging and valuing different varieties of English, it is important to acknowledge and promote ways to raise awareness of teachers and learners towards global spread of English.

This paper has investigated the way the dissertation writing component of MA TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) programmes in Iran has changed over the past decade in relation to globalization. The data, collected from 40 questionnaires completed by Iranian academic staff teaching these programmes, suggest that while change in the content and curriculum has been minimal, some major shifts are observed in the functions MA dissertations serve. The most fundamental change reported is that dissertations are now seen in this local context as an opportunity to respond to the global trend of "publish or perish". The analysis of the data demonstrates a complex picture of how global trends, national higher education policies and regulations and the local initiatives interact with one another to turn MA dissertations into a source of research publications.

Purpose: The main purpose of this study was to determine the characteristics of farmer-oriented policies as regards the Iranian agricultural extension system. Methodology: To fulfill this objective, a Delphi technique was utilized. The study used a series of three steps, engaging a panel of experts on farmer-oriented policies of agricultural extension system. Finding: The characteristics of farmer-oriented policies in agricultural extension system were classified into six categories including: need-based programs, proper interaction among stakeholders, decentralization and higher stakeholders' participation, enabling stakeholders with emphasis on smallholder farmers, market-oriented programs and integrated policies. The findings indicated that "enabling farmers to solve their technical problems" and "engaging farmers in planning, executing and evaluating of the programs" had the highest percentage of agreement. Theoretical implication: From a theoretical point of view, the finding of this research has introduced six categories as characteristics of a farmer-oriented policy that could have practical implications for agricultural extension system in Iran. Also, this paper proposes a framework for future studies in the field of farmer-oriented policies in agricultural extension system. Practical implications: Recognizing the characteristics of farmer-oriented intervention of agricultural extension shows that targeted extension approaches are needed to pay attention to these characteristics in various stages of planning, delivering and evaluation of extension programs. Originality/value: This paper provides a comprehensive list of characteristics of farmer-oriented policies of agricultural extension that can be helpful for agricultural policy-makers in devising programs of extension services.

The present study aimed at investigating the effect of flipped model of instruction on EFL learners' reading comprehension ability. Moreover, this study aimed at identifying EFL students' attitudes toward flipped model of instruction. To this end, 60 EFL learners studying at an accredited private language institute in Isfahan were first conveniently sampled and were homogenized through a sample of PET. 50 EFL learners within age range of 19 to 25 were selected for the study and equally assigned into two groups-experimental and group. A researcher-made reading comprehension test was given to the participants as the pretest of the study. The experimental group received flipped model of instruction, whereas the control group received traditional model of instruction. At the end of the study, the researcher-made reading comprehension test was administered to the two groups of the study as their posttest. Moreover, in order to identify the EFL students' attitude towards the flipped model of instruction, the participants were asked to complete a questionnaire on flipped model of instruction developed primarily by Elfatah and Ahmed (2016). The results of ANCOVA revealed that flipped model of instruction had a significant positive effect on the reading comprehension ability of EFL students. Moreover, the results of frequency analyses indicated that EFL students in the experimental group had positive attitude towards attitude flipped model of instruction and agreed that it was helpful to them in many ways. The results and implications of the study are discussed in more detail in the paper.

The present study explored the characteristics of 147 Iranian EFL teachers teaching at senior secondary schools (N = 62) and those teaching in private language institutes (N = 85). Data were collected through a Likert-scale teacher characteristics questionnaire mainly adapted from Borg (2006). Also, for data triangulation purposes, 20 teachers from each group (i.e., 40 in total) were randomly selected and attended a semi-structured interview. The results of Independent Samples t-test indicated, overall, there was a significant difference between the characteristics of senior secondary school teachers and those of language institute teachers. Moreover, the results of Chi-square analysis and content analysis of interviews revealed that EFL teachers of language institutes and senior secondary schools were significantly different regarding some specific characteristics commonly ascribed to successful teaching including good command of aural-oral skills, "being disciplined and punctual", "being open to criticism", "respecting the personality of students", "listening to students' opinions and letting them express themselves", and "showing interest in students and their learning". The findings of the study might prove fruitful for syllabus designers, teacher educators and pre-service EFL teachers as discussed in the paper.

In this paper, lower-order mathematical thinking skills within finance were studied from the viewpoint of financial employees in the Iranian Bank of Industry and Mine. To conduct this research, a questionnaire was developed after reviewing lower-order mathematical thinking skills in finance. In accordance with the revised Bloom's taxonomy, the skills considered in the questionnaire were "remembering mathematics in finance", "understanding mathematics in finance", and "applying mathematics in finance". In order to develop the questionnaire, we conducted interviews with employees and scholars, then a suitable sample familiar with mathematics and finance, consisting of 141 bank employees, was studied. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used for data analysis. Our findings show a hierarchical relationship between the first three mathematical thinking skills in finance, which confirms the revised Bloom's taxonomy. In addition, the attitudes of participants were positive concerning the importance of these skills. Participants believed that, in order to achieve proper functioning, it is essential to improve the skills of financial employees. The results were analysed with a T-test and ANOVA. This showed that the gender, position, experience, department, degree, and field of study of participants did not affect their attitudes. This research indicates that, for the successful utilisation of skills, it is essential to form an effective relationship between mathematical science and its practical application in the banking world. It is recommended to hold on-the-job training courses for financial employees in banks to empower them to use their computational skills.

Purpose: This paper aims to study the impact of increasing number of competitors on the organisational learning (OL) in tourism small and medium-sized enterprises. The focus of this study is the tourism and travel agencies (TTAs) of the City of Ahvaz where the OL was studied within TTAs insofar as increasing the number of competitors is concerned. The underlying question in this paper is whether or not the increasing number of competitors affects OL in TTAs of the City of Ahvaz. Design/Methodology/Approach: Using a longitudinal survey, OL was studied at individual, group and organisational levels. The research is based upon quantitative and qualitative methods. Owing to the small number of samples, in addition to questionnaire and quantitative analysis, authors made use of in-depth interviews. The first research was conducted in 2012, while the second one was done in 2014. Findings: It was found that in 2012, with its limited number of competitors in the market, learning in these organisations was desirable at individual level and not at group or organisational levels. On the other hand, both the quantitative and qualitative methods in 2014, with the increased number of TTAs, suggested that the quality of learning were desirable in all organisational levels in that year. Research Limitations/Implications: Care should be taken in generalising the results of the research to other TTAs because the size of the sample in this study was small. Moreover, structure and performance of TTAs may be different among various regions. In addition to the said limitation, it must be noted that some variables such as experience, education and gender were not consider in analysing the results of the study. Furthermore, OL in the TTAs might be affected by other variables that were not considered in this study. Originality/Value: Originality of the study is to link "OL" to the "competition". There is not any study with special focus on OL with approaching to competition, neither in travel and tourism literature nor in OL literature, and this study can be a starting point to raise further and future research and debates.

Previous studies have mainly focused on homework in courses such as math and physics with little attention to homework in EFL (English as a foreign language) classes. The main purpose of the study reported in this paper was to give a voice to both EFL teachers and learners with regard to English homework. To this end, 8 EFL teachers and 19 EFL learners took part in a semi-structured interview first. Then, based on their responses to the interview questions and a comprehensive review of the literature, a questionnaire was developed and validated to investigate EFL learners' and teachers' perspectives on different aspects of English homework. The questionnaire was finally completed by 283 EFL learners and 46 English teachers from two famous English institutions in Iran. Results revealed that English homework can help EFL learners with their language learning apart from enabling them to improve their reading, writing, vocabulary, and grammar. However, the homework assignments that are currently being used are not very interesting and do not help EFL learners improve all their English skills. The majority of EFL learners usually finish their homework in a hurry just before class begins; others do not spend the time that their teachers require them to spend on doing homework. English teachers should, therefore, design homework based on their students' needs and interests as well as resort to employing modern opportunities such as online resources and self-access centers.

This paper aims at studying the leadership behaviors reported by principals and observed by teachers and its relationship with management experience of principals. A quantitative method was used in this study. The target population included all principals and teachers of guidance schools and high schools in the Dashtiari District, Iran. A sample consisting of 46 principals and 129 teachers was selected by stratified sampling and simple random sampling methods. A leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) developed by Kozes and Posner (2001) was used for data collection. The obtained data were analyzed using one sample and independent t-test, correlation coefficient and crosstabs pearson Chi-square test. The results showed that teachers describe leadership behaviors of their principals relatively well. However, principals themselves evaluated their leadership behaviors as very well. Comparing between leadership behaviors self-reported by principals and those observed by teachers, a significant difference was found between the views and evaluations of teachers and principals on all components of leadership behaviors of principals, except that regarding empowerment. In fact, principals described their leadership behaviors better and at a more appropriate level than teachers. From the perspective of both teachers and principals, there was no significant relationship between any of the components of leadership behaviors and management experience of principals.

The present paper aimed at investigating the relationship between listening self-efficacy and multiple intelligences of Iranian EFL learners. Initially, ninety intermediate male learners were selected randomly from among 20 intermediate classes in a Language Academy in Yazd. In order to assure the homogeneity of the participants in terms of overall language proficiency, PET was administered to the learners. Afterwards, based on the standard deviation and mean, 60 participants were chosen from among the original ninety learners. Following that, the learners were asked to complete the listening self-efficacy and multiple intelligences questionnaires. The results of statistical analysis indicated that there was a significant relationship between total multiple intelligence scores and the Listening self-efficacy of the learners. Moreover, all of the intelligence types, except kinesthetic intelligence as well as verbal and visual intelligence were significantly related to Listening self-efficacy. Additionally, it was found that interpersonal intelligence uniquely explained 5.4 percent of the variance in Listening self-efficacy scores and is thus the best predictor of listening self-efficacy scores.

Purpose: This paper examined levels and determinants of entrepreneurial intentions amongst agricultural students. Methodology: The statistical population comprised students in colleges of agriculture at University of Tehran. By use of a random sampling method, a sample of 120 students participated in the study. The instrument for data collection was a pen and paper questionnaire. The validity and reliability of questionnaire were determined through calculating Cronbach's alpha coefficient and opinions of scientific board members. Findings: The findings revealed that about a half of the respondents had medium entrepreneurial intentions. There were differences in entrepreneurial intentions between students who had attended entrepreneurship courses and those who had not. Also, there were differences in entrepreneurial intentions between students who had self-employed parents and those who had not. According to the findings, education support, personality traits and skill were the three factors that influenced the entrepreneurial intentions of students. Practical Implications: Since education support has a significant impact on students' intention to start their own businesses, it is essential for agricultural colleges to integrate entrepreneurship education into their educational programs through curriculum development. It is also recommended that agricultural colleges introduce entrepreneurship ideas as a starting point for students to motivate them.

Some recent research has focused on the students' silence and inviting more student voice. This paper investigated the reasons behind Iranian undergraduate students' silence in English classes and stepped further to give voice to those students' attitudes toward English with the belief that inviting and including student voice could improve the overall participation of silent students in English courses. One hundred freshmen and sophomore undergraduate students majoring at the University of Isfahan volunteered to take part in this study. From among them, 60 students who indicated they were silent in English classes were asked to complete a survey adopted from Life. In addition, 20 of the students were interviewed to pinpoint the intentions behind their silence. Thus, the paper took an in-depth look at the reasons for the Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students' silence, drawing from detailed examination of the students' own accounts, comparing and contrasting them. The results of this study explicitly states reasons behind the silence of the EFL students in English classes. It also put forth various solutions that could easily be implemented in pedagogical settings by English instructors to break the silence of EFL/English as a Second Language (ESL) students.

The purpose of this study was to examine Iranian EFL teachers' attitudes towards lesson plan based on their gender. The research is a quantitative study in which the data is obtained to get a great understanding on the relationship between lesson plan of Iranian English as Foreign Language (EFL) teachers and teachers' gender. The population included 93 teachers in Eyvan and Ilam, Iran high schools and institutes. Participants in this study answered a Modified Questionnaire, adopted from Ramaila et al (2014). Independent sample t-test was computed to determine the difference between teachers' attitudes towards lesson plan and their gender. Through statistically analysis it was found that, the female teachers were more interested in use of lesson plan than the male teachers. This paper recommends that more seminars workshops and in-service courses be organized for all science teachers to help train and boost their attitudes on the significance of lesson plans in teaching/learning of English in schools.

Reading strategies are plans for solving problems encountered during reading while learners are deeply engage with the text. So, comprehension is not a simple decoding of symbols, but a complex multidimensional process in which the leaner draws on previous schemata applying strategies consciously. In fact, metacognitive strategies are accessible versatile vehicles if the readers are aware and cognizant of their applications. This paper studied the most frequent used strategies by Iranian ESP students. Fifty six students completed 30-item questionnaire of MARSI (2002). It included three strategy categories: Problem Solving strategies (PROB), Global Reading strategies (GLOB), and Support strategies (SUP). Results indicated that students at the highest level perceived PROB strategies up to 58.93%, SUP strategies up to 32.14%, and GLOB strategies up to 30.37%. Ranking the individual strategies represented that the highest used strategies are strategy 8 (overall mean = 3.51), strategy 20 (overall mean = 3.52) and strategy 11 (overall mean = 3.77).

Needs analysis is fundamental to determine what students need to achieve through the medium of English accurately analysis. In this regard, the present study seeks to evaluate the ESP course book entitled "The ESP Course of Qur'anic Sciences and Tradition" taught at some universities in Iran. More specifically, the study aims to identify the students' perceptions of their needs and their attitudes towards the course book. To this end, a researcher-made questionnaire was used and accordingly an interview was run. Sample of this study consisted of 80 junior students majoring in Qur'anic Sciences and Tradition and 6 teachers teaching them. Results of the study revealed that the course book is appropriate for the students of the Qur'anic Sciences and Tradition course in general sense. However, the book did not get high evaluation in some issues. The findings of this study would enable the ESP instructors to pay more attention to the students' needs in designing the Qur'anic Sciences and Tradition textbook. The paper concludes with suggestions that may help improve the current English language course based on the students' attitudes and needs.

The present paper concentrates on a web-based inquiry in the synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) via Web 2.0 technologies of Talk and Write and Skype. It investigates EFL learners' socio-cognitive progress through dynamic assessment (DA), which follows Vygotsky's inclination for supportive interchange in the zone of proximal development. Sixty adult EFL learners at upper-intermediate level were randomly assigned to the control and experimental groups. The participants in the experimental group were involved in dynamic assessment in synchronous computer-mediated communication for seven weeks. The results reveal that, through interactions in the ZPD, DA in synchronous computer-mediated communication lets us explore not only the actual level of learners' listening ability but also to diagnose and assess the potential level of their listening development.

This paper is a try to investigate the attitudes of English language university teachers in Kerman (Iran) toward computer technology and find the hidden factors that make university teachers avoid using technology in English language teaching. 30 university teachers participated in this study. A questionnaire and semi-structured interview were used in order to collect the data. Both descriptive and inferential statistics as well as content analysis were conducted to analyze the data. The findings of the study revealed that a great majority of university teachers attribute positive remarks for integrating technology in language teaching. However, they get difficulty in integrating technology into their instruction effectively.

In the body of literature on listening strategies to EFL learners, what seems to be lacking is that the focus is on teaching listening strategies to learners with little attention to their listening comprehension problems. No local research has been conducted on the nature of the Iranian tertiary level students' EFL listening comprehension problems or strategies. Therefore, no instrument is available to investigate these constructs. This paper reports the findings of a study that made an attempt to develop and test an instrument that will aid researchers identify students' specific listening problems and listening strategy repertoire. The instrument was developed by integrating and validating the available instruments in the related literature. The two developed questionnaires were: the Listening Comprehension Problems Questionnaire (LCPQ) and the Listening Strategy Use Questionnaire (LSUQ). Problems related to designing and testing this instrument is shared and the modifications made to it are presented. The instrument is expected to be useful for researchers interested to study the area of EFL listening in a similar setting.

Learned helplessness as a negative motivational state can latently underlie repeated failures and create negative feelings toward the education as well as depression in students and other members of a society. The purpose of this paper is to predict learned helplessness based on students' personality traits. The research is a predictive correlational study and the population consists of all high school 3rd grade female students in Kermanshah-Iran in 2013-14. Based on Cochran formula, the sample size was determined 360 people who were selected using multistage cluster sampling method. The samples responded personality traits and attribution style questionnaires. Data were analyzed using Pearson correlation coefficient and multiple regressions with SPSS software. The results showed that there is relation between learned helplessness and personality traits of neuroticism, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, but only the trait of neuroticism can inversely predict learned helplessness.

This paper intended to compare teaching English in private language institutes and public schools in Iranian Education system from the viewpoint of the English teachers who practice in both systems. It also aimed at examining teachers' preference to teach-in either place. 15 English teachers in Ilam city participated in the study and data were collected through a researcher-made questionnaire, including 60 Items through which respondents were asked to express their dis/agreement on 5 subscales. The results showed that better management, better fulfillment of the educational needs, and better teaching environment were among the reasons why the teachers preferred to teach in private language institutes. The study then, provides suggestions for improvement of ELT in the public system.

The essential function of critical thinking in education is obvious by many studies done in this field. The main purpose of this article is to find the relationship between critical thinking levels of Iranian EFL learners and their performance on different modes of writing. The sample of the study selected among those who studying English at the advanced level at Kish Institute of Science and Technology, Rasht, Iran. The instruments used in this study included the Longman paper and pencil test (2004) for ensuring the homogeneity of the learners, a critical thinking questionnaire (Honey, 2004) with 30 items into the 5-point Likert scale type that used to divide learners into high and low critical thinkers and an analytic scale of Weir (1990) for assessing participants' argumentative and descriptive writings. The study followed an ex-post facto design. The results of inferential statistics revealed a statistically significant difference between the writing performance of high and low critical thinkers in both the descriptive and argumentative modes. It was found that the high critical thinkers' writing was better in both modes of writing compared to the low critical thinkers. The result of this research helps teachers to consider the effect of critical thinking on the learning process. Moreover, the syllabus designers and course-book writers should think about critical thinking as an influential element in their program.

With the shift in language teaching towards a more learner-centered approach, there is now an emphasis on considering learners' views on what goes on in the classroom. Involving learners in selecting and evaluating classroom activities as well as listening to their voices and preferences can be helpful for teachers in planning lesson and designing materials. With this idea in mind, the present study focuses on the tertiary students' perceptions of "ideal English lesson" in Iran and Japan. 115 Iranian students completed a questionnaire designed by Littlewood (2010). The results were compared with the Littlewood's (2010) study with Japanese students as well as students from three Asian countries (Hong Kong, Singapore, and Mainland China). The findings show that for Iranian students non-communicative activities were regarded as an "ideal English lesson". Japanese students expressed generally more conservative preferences than their counterparts in Iran and the three other Asian countries. The results suggest that learners' beliefs about language learning, proficiency level, and future needs may affect their current preferred classroom activities. Implications for lesson planning and curriculum development are also discussed in this paper.

This paper investigated the extent to which Iranian EFL students are aware of the appropriate use of request speech act in English speaking contexts in terms of formality, politeness and indirectness. A researcher made discourse completion test (DCT) including 16 scenarios was distributed among 130 advanced students in private English institutes in Ilam city. Results revealed that 90.5% of the participants adopted formal or highly formal requests, 88.5% requested politely and 67.2% performed indirect requests. In addition, the results of chi-square tests confirmed significant relationships between the three variables, meaning that those participants who were careful about using appropriate degrees of formality tended to act politely and preferably indirectly. The study, thus, led to certain implications for students, teachers, material developers and curriculum designers.

Drawing from the Uses and Gratifications Theory, this study examined the Gratification Sought and the Gratification Obtained from using Social Networking Sites among Iranian, Malaysian, British, and South African higher education students. This comparison allowed to drawing conclusions about how social networking sites fulfill users' needs with different cultures. Data were collected through a quantitative study applying online and paper-based questionnaire carried out in 2013, using a representative sample (N = 320). Findings showed differences in students' motivation to join to and to use of social network sites in each country. Interestingly, the researchers found that cultural differences may determine the uses and gratifications of social networking sites.

The washback effect of high-stakes tests has been explored in different countries and various educational contexts. Washback generally refers to the influence of testing on teaching and learning (Alderson & Wall, 1993). This paper which is a part of a larger study seeks to report the perceptions and attitudes of Iranian pre-university English teachers towards the effect of Iranian National University Entrance Exam (hereafter the INUEE) on teachers' English teaching and learners' English learning. The participants were 6 female pre-university English teachers from two pre-university schools in the city of Ahwaz, Iran. To investigate their perceptions and attitudes towards the INUEE, a validated questionnaire was administered to the teachers and a semi-structured interview was also conducted in order to gain richer information, and to shed more light on the data collected through their questionnaires. The respondents answered questions on whether the test motivated the students to learn English, whether the INUEE evaluated students' academic knowledge, etc. The descriptive and qualitative analysis of the data revealed that teachers' perceptions towards the test were mixed. Two teachers held positive views about the test and four other teachers held negative perceptions about this high-stakes test. The findings of this study could be pedagogically significant to policy-makers, test designers, teachers, and students.

This paper reports on the findings of a study carried out on the advanced and elementary teachers' and students' functions and patterns of code-switching in Iranian English classrooms. This concept has not been adequately examined in L2 (second language) classroom contexts than in outdoor natural contexts. Therefore, besides reporting on the findings of the study, the paper also argues for bringing the use of L1 (first language), more narrowly code-switching, into the classroom and emancipating both teachers and students from the shackles of traditional approaches to teaching which were strongly against the process of code-switching and considered it as a debilitative behavior in the classroom. To this end, 60 Iranian students and 30 Iranian teachers were selected to come up with the data of this study which were sought through two sets of questionnaires, one for the teachers and the other for the students. Each one of the participants was given the questionnaire and some time to fill it in based on what he/she has remembered from their classes. Findings revealed that the elementary teachers and students, for most of the functions, ranked higher than their advanced counterparts, which is still quite indicative of the practice of the traditional methods in the classroom. The reasons why it turned out so is in detail explained, and the pedagogical implications are also accordingly examined. (Contains 4 figures.)

E-learning is advancing in Iran right now. The Iranian higher education system is applying electronic learning in order to conquer the limitations of the existing education system. These limitations include the growing number of applicants for entering universities, lack of classrooms for education, and universities' tensions in replying to these needs. Also, ease of access to e-learning and a lack of financial resources are reasons for applying e-learning in Iran. In addition, the Iranian higher education system wants to progress with global changes in the information era and they see it as necessary to acquire information and knowledge. Meanwhile, web technology enjoys a special and significant role. This paper investigated barriers to using internet technology for e-learning in the Iranian context. The methodology employed both qualitative and quantitative techniques. In the qualitative stage, exploratory observations of eight virtual institutes for higher education and interviews with 20 experts in these institutes were used. The analysis of the data showed that socio-cultural, structural, educational, economic, and legal factors were the most prominent obstacles to web technology use; each factor comprised a number of components. So as to check the primacy of the factors and the extracted components at large, the researchers developed a Likert-type questionnaire; the questionnaire, which comprised the five types of obstacles and their related components, enjoyed a high degree of validity and reliability. Twenty students in each of the eight institutes were asked to fill out the questionnaire. The analysis of the data showed that socio-cultural factors are the most influential barriers to use of the Internet in e-learning.

This paper aims to present the results obtained in a survey whose objective was to investigate the Iranian French language learner's definition of memorization, and the techniques they adopt most frequently in memorizing linguistic structures and vocabulary. The results indicate that although memorization plays a significant role in learning a foreign language, it is often neglected or understated. Memorization techniques are known to be rather individual, but it is suggested that weak learners can be encouraged to replace old techniques with more effective ones that could pave the way to a profound and stable learning.

In recent years, concurrent with steep increase in the growth of higher education institutions, improving of educational service quality with an emphasis on students' satisfaction has become an important issue. The present study is going to use the Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) in order to evaluate the quality of educational services in Vali-e-asr University of Rafsanjan in form of case study. In The traditional FMEA method the risk priority number (RPN) index was used for rating the failure items, which is the product of three risk factors: occurrence of failure, severity of failure and detectability of failure. In this traditional method, the weights of risk factors weight are not taken into account such that the same weight value is assumed for each of those factors. To overcome this weakness, much research has been performed, recently. This paper uses Wang and colleagues model to assess and prioritize risks of educational services quality by incorporating Yue model in a Fuzzy Environment. The results illustrate that one of the most significant failure items is students' lack of readiness to get job opportunity because of efficiency absence of theoretical and practical courses presented in university.

This paper explored perceptions of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) among a group of Iranian female learners. A sample of 88 English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners participated in the study. A task-based questionnaire was developed to examine the perceptions of the participants. The results suggested a high level of understanding of TBLT concepts among the majority of respondents. They also revealed a few negative views on TBLT implementation. This implies that EFL teachers can be positive in successfully applying TBLT in their classes because the learners are willing to adapt themselves to this new approach of language teaching.

This study investigated the use of language learning strategies (LLS) and reasons for learning English among Iranian EFL students who began learning English at different ages. The participants (N = 33, both male and female) were divided into two groups of younger beginners (who began learning English before age 9; N = 16) and older beginners (who began learning English at or after age 12; N = 17). They were invited to complete Oxford's (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) questionnaire and to take part in a structured interview. While the students' choices of LLS were identified both through the questionnaire and interviews, their reasons for strategy use and their goals in learning English were determined using the interviews alone. Data analysis indicated that there were differences in LLS categories employed by the groups. Further findings and implications are discussed in the paper.

This paper reports a comparative study exploring language learning strategy use and beliefs about language learning of high-school students and students attending English institutes. Oxford's (1990) strategy inventory for language learning (SILL) and Horwitz's (1987) beliefs about language learning inventory (BALLI), were used to collect data. One-way multivariate analysis of variance was used to analyze the data. The results revealed significant differences between the two groups regarding their strategy use and beliefs about language learning. Institute students used significantly more memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive and social strategies. Also they held stronger beliefs about the difficulty of language learning and motivation and expectation than their peers in high school. The conclusions of the study along with related pedagogical implications are also discussed.

Student-directed teaching and assessment techniques are gradually dominating educational systems almost all over the world. This study investigated a cohort of male and female Iranian EFL students' attitudes toward self-, peer-, and teacher-assessment experiences. Sixty three students at Urmia University and Tabriz Islamic Azad University, in the form of three intact classes, experienced self-, peer-, and teacher-assessment activities for one academic semester (having taken a knowledge pretest, four assessment series, and a course achievement posttest). Of all the participants, 38 completed a 5-point Likert-scale attitude questionnaire. The application of ANOVA, across and within group dependent samples t tests, as well as some qualitative analyses, indicated that the three experimental groups had positive attitudes toward their assessment experiences. While the peer-assessment group was the most positive in this regard, slight differences were found in the groups' attitudes and beliefs. Further findings and implications are discussed in the paper.

The implementation of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) has provided tremendous opportunities for language teachers to promote their computer literacy and adopt a learner-centered approach to teaching. Accordingly, with the rising advent of language learning technologies, language teachers would occupy a fundamental role in preparing and encouraging students to use various technologies for language learning purposes. In particular, the purpose of this study is to explore the attitudes of Iranian English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers toward the implementation of mobile-assisted language learning (MALL). The survey target participants were 168 EFL teachers who worked in a number of language teaching institutions in Iran. In-depth interviews with 55 EFL teachers were conducted as well. The findings from the survey and interview studies indicated moderately positive attitudes of the participants toward the use of mobile phones for language learning and teaching. The findings suggest that the presence of a couple of perceived challenges might be the reason for the nonuse of mobile phones for EFL learning and teaching in Iran. The teachers reported that they do not use any kind of MALL activities or software programs in their EFL courses. Results demonstrated that the EFL teachers did not have the required skills to use/develop Mall activities. The paper proposes recommendations and suggestions on how to implement MALL and remove potential barriers to MALL implementation in EFL contexts.

The main purpose of this paper is to identify factors and conditions that are important for successful implementation of computers in Iranian schools during one decade from 1995 to 2005. The second focus of this paper is to examine how these factors relate to models of implementation in other countries such as developed countries. This paper is written based on the results of three studies which had been done in 1995, 2000 and 2005. Participants were samples of different groups involved in the implementation process during these years. The data collected consisted of questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, policy documents. The results indicate that some factors were reported very important during one decade such as the role of situational factors such as traditional societies in transition. The most important factors of traditional societies in transition were included: socio-economic, socio-cultural factors and political stability. (Contains 5 tables and 1 figure.)

This paper addresses the faculty perception on web-based instruction in order to explain the nature of learning and instruction in this setting. Using a mixed method approach, the research studied a sample of 132 University Faculty (lecturers and professors) in University of Kurdistan. The research tools were interview and questionnaire. The results of Exploratory Factor Analysis suggested that five basic components could explain the nature of learning and instruction of web-based instruction in higher education: "the lack of authentic learning, autonomy in learning tasks, the weakness of faculty role in instruction, technical skills in web-based instruction and infrastructure and policy-making." These five components could explicate two more fundamental themes: the overall nature of learning and teaching in web-based instruction and web-based obstacles.

Leadership is an important factor in the effective implementation of technology in schools. This study examines the transformational leadership role of principals to determine whether transformational leadership role of principals in ICT implementation in schools is influenced by the computer competence, level of computer use, and professional development activities of principals. This paper, based on responses from 320 principals in Iran, reports that computer use and professional development activities (on the dimension of ICT and leadership) influence the transformational leadership role of principals in implementing ICT in schools. In addition, the study results show that computer competence has a positive relationship with the level of computer use by secondary school principals and it indirectly influences the transformational leadership role of principals in implementing ICT in schools. It is suggested that ongoing professional development opportunities on dimension of leadership and technology should be provided for principals to increase their levels of proficiency in computer use which will help future research understand the importance of the use of technology in education and to learn to model the transformational leadership components of charisma (idealized influence), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration in their schools. (Contains 7 tables and 1 figure.)

Purpose: The aim of this paper is to evaluate ICT literacy differences in trainee student teachers from the view of sexuality. Design/methodology/approach: In the research, sender differences in self-reported ICT experience and ICT literacy among first year graduate trainee teachers were investigated. The questionnaires were made available in two forms: printed and online. Also, dynamic model of ICT literacy was employed. Three main components of aspiring teachers' ICT literacy were covered: present general problem-solving and technical ICT capabilities; situational and longitudinal sustainability; and transferability of ICT capabilities into future professional domain. Findings: Results show no significant differences were found between females' and males' previous experience with ICT. However, males on average worked with computers significantly more hours per week than females. Significant differences between males' and females' technical ICT capabilities and situational and longitudinal sustainability were observed. Males' scores were higher. In the regression analysis, when the impact of the background and ICT experience variables was controlled, gender failed to be a significant predictor of the sustainability scores. However, it remained a significant predictor of some trainee teachers' scores, related to their technical ICT capabilities. Originality/value: This paper adds to the literature on the evaluation of ICT literacy differences in trainee student teachers from the view of sexuality and will be of interest to those in the field. (Contains 2 tables.)

Hesitation strategies appear in speech in the form of filled or unfilled pauses, paralinguistic markers like nervous laughter or coughing, or signals which are used to justify units in the coming utterances in which the speaker struggles to produce. The main functions of these forms of hesitation strategies have been associated with speech planning or accessing speech difficulties. The present paper reports on a study which investigated the effect of context on hesitation strategies employed by Iranian university students. Previous studies on hesitation strategies used by beginner or advanced L2 learners revealed that beginners mostly leave their hesitation pauses unfilled which cause their speech to sound disfluent, and advanced learners tend to use various fillers in order to sound like native speakers. The study examines this phenomenon across different contexts in an oral L2 test situation. The respondents were a group of students registered in the Tertiary English Language Program at a university in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The frequency and use of silent pauses, silent pauses and fillers, fillers, and non-lexical words were examined in four different L2 oral tasks. The aim was to identify the effect of context on the types of hesitation strategies employed by the EFL learners in speaking tests.

The present paper is an attempt to evaluate "Pacesetter" Series (Strange and Hall, 2005), an EFL course book series, in four levels of "starter", "elementary", "pre-intermediate", and "intermediate", being currently instructed at several language institutes in Iran. The purpose of this study is to determine the appropriateness of the series in Iranian EFL contexts. Litz (2000) questionnaire was exploited to examine the series thoroughly in all essential aspects. Sixty four EFL teachers rated the series. The results of descriptive statistics indicated that there is an overall consensus among the teachers that Pacesetter rightly addresses the needs of the learners in a communicative curriculum. However, two salient points are still worth further addressing. The first issue is that the series does not sufficiently underscore the speaking skill. The other concern involves the incorporation of European culture in every skill and skill-related activities as it may cause frustration and bafflement on the part of Iranian adolescent foreign language learners since they are unfamiliar with certain aspects of the target language culture. One way to remedy the two aforementioned issues is that the teachers using this series can think of other substitute exercises to solve the problem.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether performance in MI could predict the performance in reading competency. The other objectives were to identify the components of MI which are correlated with the reading test scores, and to determine the relationship between the multiple intelligences and reading proficiency. A descriptive and ex post facto design was employed to ascertain relationships among the variables. The participants were 128 randomly chosen pre-university students (grade 12, 18-19 years old) of both genders studying in Tehran in the academic year 2008-2009. Three instruments were utilized in this study: 1) a demographic questionnaire; 2) the Persian version of Mckenzie's MI Inventory; and 3) a standardized reading proficiency test which was selected from retrieved paper-based TOEFL® tests. Results of the correlation analysis revealed no significant relationship between the two variables of MI and reading scores of the students. Furthermore, the results of the correlation analysis revealed that there was a low significant, negative relationship between musical-rhythmic intelligence and reading which suggests that when the reading score of a student increases, musical-rhythmic intelligence of the same student decreases and vice versa. Overall, three categories of MI (musical-rhythmic, verbal-linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic) were found to be predictive of reading proficiency.