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In Sub-Saharan Africa, the cultivation of local crop varieties persists despite a political environment that favours commercial seed system development to address seed and food insecurity. Community seed banks (CSBs) are emergent alternative/complementary development initiatives, yet there remains limited empirical research on their role in farmers' seed systems. In Malawi, where maize is a sociopolitical currency, we use maize seeds as a means to examine how CSBs may support farmers' seed systems. Through 60 semi-structured interviews with both CSB members and non-members, we collected quantitative and qualitative data on maize seed access opportunities, farmer preferences, and patterns of seed adoption/discontinuation. Interviews show that while CSBs play a negligible role in farmers' maize seed supply, they can strengthen seed sharing networks through auxiliary social and economic services. CSB members report higher levels of satisfaction with local maize over commercial maize, suggesting CSBs can expand farmers' frame of reference through events that encourage exchange and experimentation. Local power dynamics can affect CSB accessibility; initiatives to expand CSB operations must therefore address the inherent exclusivity of CSBs as membership-based institutions. These findings invite future research on CSB viability and the potential of decentralized development interventions to improve farmers' seed security in Sub-Saharan Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Comoros, cassava plays a major food security role, however yields are low as few modern cultivars are grown. Prior to the introduction of new cultivars, and as a germplasm resource for breeders, germplasm collection missions were undertaken in the three largest islands; Ngazidja, Ndzouani and Mwali; and associated farmer knowledge documented. Cassava landraces were collected from 34 farms, and 17 key informant interviews conducted. Stakes of 79 collected landraces were planted for agro-morphological characterization. All landraces were genotyped using DaRTSeq technology and data analysed to identify duplicates. Genetic fingerprints of 46 unique landraces were co-analysed with 402 previously genotyped landraces and improved cultivars from Tanzania. From this set only one match was made with a very old cultivar, Aipin Valenca, from the Northern Zone in Tanzania. According to SNP data, germplasm from the three islands of Comoros were similarly related to one another, and more distantly related to germplasm from Tanzania. They were most closely related to germplasm from the Northern Zone in Tanzania, suggesting a possible historical introduction of germplasm from this area. Lower levels of diversity were observed on these islands, as well as the islands of Pemba and Zanzibar. This implies limited introduction and movement of cassava germplasm into the islands. Introductions of improved germplasm to Comoros is recommended with the simultaneous conservation of collected unique landraces. Two landraces with high market demand and reported tolerance to diseases were identified for further evaluation with a view to multiplication and distribution and incorporation into the breeding program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant cultivation is a very important means of production in realising food self-sufficiency for farmers, considering that cultivating plants is the life and livelihood of farmers. Therefore, it is a wrong action when the government draws up a plan for plant cultivation without involving farmers. The purpose of this research is to examine the extent of the government's role in strengthening food sovereignty through the implementation of the Plant Cultivation System Law, because the Law does not appear to provide for the rights of farmers. The existence of several cases where farmers are brought to trial for criminal provisions of plant cultivation shows that legal protection has not been carried out on the rights of farmers in maintaining local seeds and conducting plant crosses as charged in court, namely having carried out programs that are contrary to government programs that require the use of certified seeds or seeds produced by seed companies. This research is important to do in order to provide protection to novice farmers in cultivating plants to create a just legal framework. The research method uses normative research with a statutory approach, concept approach and case approach. The results of the study aim to provide a recommendation for strengthening the role of farmer participation in planning their lives and livelihoods so that there is no dependence on seeds originating from companies in accordance with the mandate of Article 28 A of the 1945 Constitution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smallholder farmers require seed systems that can meet diverse functions: move a range of planting material; spread specialty varieties (climate-resilient or nutrient-dense varieties); reach last-mile areas; and perform in high-stress contexts. Acknowledging that smallholders use both formal and informal systems, this article focuses on the latter and on a component largely unexamined to date: informal commercial seed systems (ICSSs). Four evidence-based cases show how ICCSs contribute to varied seed system functions. In Tanzania, traders have moved multiple modern bean varieties countrywide and within just a few years. In the remote Ugandan north, traders have commercialized the sale of sweetpotato vines (produced off-season) to those lacking their own critical marshlands. In Bolivia, traders routinely sell native and modern varieties of seed tubers to farmers, along with their commerce in ware potatoes. In central Mali, a cluster of villages produces and sells pearl millet seed that is specially adapted to extreme drought conditions. All four cases share key characteristics: they distinguish seed vs. grain, serve local, regional, and international customers, and, perhaps most importantly, are sustained without subsidy or project support. As ICSSs meet farmers' demands for seed that is not supplied by other actors, a question remains as to whether ICSSs should be left alone, leveraged, or improved further. Recognizing possible legal and operational challenges, this article suggests that ICSSs first be studied in-depth—characterizing their variations, locales, and system functions—so that future debates on possible support can be grounded in concrete evidence of ICSSs' strengths, weaknesses, and unique benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Sub-Saharan Africa, the cultivation of local crop varieties persists despite a political environment that favours commercial seed system development to address seed and food insecurity. Community seed banks (CSBs) are emergent alternative/complementary development initiatives, yet there remains limited empirical research on their role in farmers’ seed systems. In Malawi, where maize is a sociopolitical currency, we use maize seeds as a means to examine how CSBs may support farmers’ seed systems. Through 60 semi-structured interviews with both CSB members and non-members, we collected quantitative and qualitative data on maize seed access opportunities, farmer preferences, and patterns of seed adoption/discontinuation. Interviews show that while CSBs play a negligible role in farmers’ maize seed supply, they can strengthen seed sharing networks through auxiliary social and economic services. CSB members report higher levels of satisfaction with local maize over commercial maize, suggesting CSBs can expand farmers’ frame of reference through events that encourage exchange and experimentation. Local power dynamics can affect CSB accessibility; initiatives to expand CSB operations must therefore address the inherent exclusivity of CSBs as membership-based institutions. These findings invite future research on CSB viability and the potential of decentralized development interventions to improve farmers’ seed security in Sub-Saharan Africa.

As an emerging innovation, hybrid potato breeding raises high expectations about faster variety development and clean true potato seed as a new source of planting material. Hybrid breeding could, therefore, substantially contribute to global food security and other major sustainable development goals. However, its success will not only depend on the performance of hybrid potato in the field, but also on a range of complex and dynamic system conditions. This article is based on a multidisciplinary project in which we have studied the innovation dynamics of hybrid potato breeding and explored how these dynamics may shape the future of hybrid potato. Inspired by the approach of responsible innovation, we closely involved key players in the Dutch and international potato sector and other relevant actors in thinking about these potato futures. An important and recurrent theme in our work is the tension between the predominant commercial innovation dynamics in plant breeding and promises to respond to the global challenges of food security, agrobiodiversity and climate change. In this article, we, therefore, discuss responsible innovation strategies in (hybrid) potato breeding, which may help to bridge this tension and finally reflect on the implications for the field of plant breeding in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing agricultural productivity by promoting high-yielding and micronutrient-rich crop varieties has the potential to reduce poverty and malnutrition. However, getting these technologies into the hands of smallholders remains a challenge. This paper presents results from a randomised field experiment that uses rural primary schools as dissemination hubs for improved orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) vines and nutrition information in rural Tanzania and Uganda. Two years after the initial vine distribution, we find that households in treatment villages are 21 percentage points more likely to report growing OFSP and 27 percentage points more likely to correctly state the nutritional benefits of OFSP compared to those in control villages. We also find up to 16 percentage point increase in the likelihood of OFSP consumption by children under 5 years of age in treatment villages compared to that in control villages. Furthermore, we find suggestive evidence that increased knowledge on the nutritional benefits of OFSP mediated up to a third of the total treatment effect on OFSP adoption and consumption. Our findings suggest that rural primary schools can be effective channels for promoting and accelerating the diffusion of micronutrient-rich crop varieties in rural areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emergence of Farmers' Rights in international law is closely related to the "seed wars" at the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) during the 1980s. Recognizing the plant innovations of farmers everywhere, these rights represented a countervailing measure against increasing pressures to protect commercial plant breeders' rights around the world. Nearly three decades later, the intellectual property rights of plant breeders, internationally recognized and legally binding, are stronger than ever, while Farmers' Rights are facing increasing threats from the continuing spread of industrial agriculture and biotechnologies. The present article seeks to make two contributions: first, embedding the emergence of Farmers' Rights in a historical analysis, it conceptualizes them not simply as a new category of rights, but as a specific manifestation of the conflictual entwinement of capitalism and plant genetic resources fomented in the geopolitical context of the 20th century. Second, focusing on India and Brazil, it analyses the different manner in which the state in both has played a crucial role in restricting the real freedoms of traditional farmers. While farmers' "interests" are routinely preyed upon to justify various policies, their overall effect promises to deepen the ongoing process of farmers' dispossession and separation from their basic means of production: the seed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Micronutrient deficiencies affect over one quarter of the world's population. Biofortification is an evidence-based nutrition strategy that addresses some of the most common and preventable global micronutrient gaps and can help improve the health of millions of people. Since 2013, HarvestPlus and a consortium of collaborators have made impressive progress in the enrichment of staple crops with essential micronutrients through conventional plant breeding. Objective: To review and highlight lessons learned from multiple large-scale delivery strategies used by HarvestPlus to scale up biofortification across different country and crop contexts. Results: India has strong public and private sector pearl millet breeding programs and a robust commercial seed sector. To scale-up pearl millet, HarvestPlus established partnerships with public and private seed companies, which facilitated the rapid commercialization of products and engagement of farmers in delivery activities. In Nigeria, HarvestPlus stimulated the initial acceptance and popularization of vitamin A cassava using a host of creative approaches, including "crowding in" delivery partners, innovative promotional programs, and development of intermediate raw material for industry and novel food products. In Uganda, orange sweet potato (OSP) is a traditional subsistence crop. Due to this, and the lack of formal seed systems and markets, HarvestPlus established a network of partnerships with community-based nongovernmental organizations and vine multipliers to popularize and scale-up delivery of OSP. Conclusions: Impact of biofortification ultimately depends on the development of sustainable markets for biofortified seeds and products. Results illustrate the need for context-specific, innovative solutions to promote widespread adoption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa is considered a food-secure nation; however, food insecurity is still a major challenge for many poor rural households that rely on cash incomes and government grants for survival. Furthermore, these grants are not always adequate to meet households' basic needs, and fail to provide them with the food required for food and nutrition security. Some of these households rely on agriculture to supplement their food needs, and an important aspect of this agricultural production is the seed system. Smallholder farmers in rural areas rely on informal seed systems, and use traditional knowledge and methods to produce, harvest, store, and sell their produce. This research combined quantitative and qualitative methods to assess the role of informal seed systems in promoting food production in rural smallholder agricultural households in South Africa. The narrative review showed reword that while smallholder farmers acquire seed from informal seed systems, they face numerous challenges that affect their production activities. These challenges include poor seed quality and assessment, poor storage and harvesting facilities, which limit proper seed production, and affect crop yield and marketing. Due to these challenges, the ability of rural smallholder farmers to access mainstream markets is limited and as a result, they are confined to local markets that offer lower prices. Moreover, South African policies do not recognize the informal seed system as one of the contributors to food security. This is a major limitation as farmers may not receive the support and assistance they require. Formal recognition and support for informal seed systems would go a long way in improving smallholder farmers' access to quality seed. This would have ripple effects on their yields and productivity. When properly implemented and given recognition by the government, informal seed systems have the potential to contribute to rural food security and livelihoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Until recently, there has been little commercial sale of vegetatively propagated crop seed, except for potatoes (Solanum tuberosum). This is especially true in developing countries. However, a formal, commercial seed sector for cassava (Manihot esculenta) is emerging in Nigeria. In 2016, a project, Building an Economically Sustainable Integrated Cassava Seed System in Nigeria (BASICS), started to encourage village farmers to certify and sell cassava seed. A questionnaire survey of 30 cassava entrepreneurs across Nigeria in 2019 included some of those village-based growers as well as larger producers, including some who certified their planting material. In the long run, if there is a consistent demand for certified cassava seed, medium-sized producers may be able to satisfy some of that demand, especially if they have continued programmatic support; otherwise, these budding seed entrepreneurs may close down. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the right to seeds and legal mobilization for the protection of peasant seed systems in Mali. It centres on the ongoing 'Seed, Norms and Peasants' process ('Semences, Normes et Paysans', SNP), the goal of which is to achieve the recognition of peasant seed systems in the law. Through the lens of human rights practice, the article explores how peasant organizations and allied NGOs have: a) converged around a shared political agenda despite initial disagreement on the role of certified seeds; b) framed the right to seeds as a collective right, grounded in customary regimes for the governance of land and natural resources; and c) engaged in dialogue with the state to push for legal reform. It further discusses processes of legal transfers and seed aid that have ushered the development of a commercial seed sector in Mali and locates peasant seed systems within the political economy of seeds in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) is a rapidly spreading viral disease that affects a major food security crop in sub-Saharan Africa. Currently, there are several proposed management interventions to minimize loss in infected fields. Field-scale data comparing the effectiveness of these interventions individually and in combination are limited and expensive to collect. Using a stochastic epidemiological model for the spread and management of CBSD in individual fields, we simulate the effectiveness of a range of management interventions. Specifically we compare the removal of diseased plants by roguing, preferential selection of planting material, deployment of virus-free 'clean seed' and pesticide on crop yield and disease status of individual fields with varying levels of whitefly density crops under low and high disease pressure. We examine management interventions for sustainable production of planting material in clean seed systems and how to improve survey protocols to identify the presence of CBSD in a field or quantify the within-field prevalence of CBSD. We also propose guidelines for practical, actionable recommendations for the deployment of management strategies in regions of sub-Saharan Africa under different disease and whitefly pressure. Author summary: Cassava is the second largest source of calories in sub-Saharan Africa and is particularly important for the poorest farmers in the region. Cassava brown streak disease is a viral disease that causes cassava tubers to rot, rendering the roots inedible. Recently, the disease has begun to spread towards major cassava growing regions in West Africa from East Africa, where it continues to cause significant yield losses. Improved approaches for disease control are needed to enable small-holder farmers to prepare for and minimize the impact of the disease when their fields become infected. Using a combination of computational methods and mathematical models enables us to screen a much larger range of potential treatments for their likely effectiveness in managing disease and reducing crop loss than would be possible in conventional field trials, which are expensive and logistically difficult to conduct. Our results indicate that regularly planting part of the field with virus-free cassava greatly improves the yield. Removing visibly infected plants and replanting using visibly uninfected plants also improves yield, even when some of these plants may be infected but not yet showing symptoms. We also show how the survey protocol can be optimized to improve estimates of disease severity leading to more effective tailored advice to farmers in regions with different disease pressures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The liberalisation of commercial seed systems has largely been seen as an essential means of improving agricultural productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa. Yet, access to improved seed varieties has remained a major constraint in many countries in spite of liberalisation and other reform efforts. This paper analyses the governance challenges involved in seed systems from a theoretical and an empirical perspective. The paper applies theoretical concepts of New Institutional Economics to identify potential governance challenges involved at the different stages of the seed supply system. The commercial maize seed sector in Ghana is used for an empirical case study. Ghana has passed a seed law that aims to increase the availability of improved seed varieties to farmers by providing more opportunities to the private sector. However, there is still a chronic lack of varietal diversity, indicating that governance challenges in the seed system remain despite the reform efforts. For data collection, a participatory mapping technique known as Process Net-Map was applied, together with expert interviews involving a diverse set of stakeholders. The empirical evidence reveals that, in line with the theoretical considerations, governance challenges indeed affect all stages of the seed supply system. These challenges include limited involvement of smallholders in setting breeding priorities, restricted private sector participation in source seed production, limited ability of an under-resourced public regulatory body to ensure high seed quality through mandatory seed certification and overdependence on a weak public extension system to promote improved varieties. The paper discusses the policy implications of the findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we assess the application of the open source development model in the field of agricultural research and development, as a potential tool for upholding both public scientific research, and farmer-led innovation and farmers' rights. First, we provide an overview of the problems associated with the rise of IPRs in agriculture in view of global challenges such as food security and environmental sustainability, and present the debate on farmers' rights, including its rationale and international policy and legal responses. We then review open-source initiatives in the digital domain, including successes and shortcomings, and offer our understanding of relevant terminologies. We explore the parallels between software development and innovation in agriculture, review ongoing open source agriculture-related initiatives, and identify lessons learnt. We particularly assess the potential for open source systems to address existing asymmetries in capabilities and contribute to global challenges such as food security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organic and low-input agriculture needs flexible varieties that can buffer environmental stress and adapt to the needs of farmers. We implemented an experiment to investigate the evolutionary capacities of a sample of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) population varieties for a number of phenotypic traits. Three farmers cultivated, selected and multiplied one or several populations over two years on their farms. The third year, the versions of the varieties cultivated and selected by the different farmers were compared to the original seed lots they had been given. After two cycles of cultivation and on-farm mass selection, all the observed varieties showed significant phenotypic changes (differences between the original version and the version cultivated by farmers) for morphological and phenological traits. When the divergence among versions within varieties was studied, the results show that the varieties conserved their identity, except for one variety, which evolved in such a way that it may now be considered two different varieties. The heterogeneity of the population varieties was assessed in comparison with a commercial F1 hybrid used as control, and we found no specific differences in phenotypic diversity between the hybrid and population varieties. The phenotypic changes shown by the population varieties in response to on-farm cultivation and selection could be useful for the development of specific adaptation. These results call into question the current European seed legislation and the requirements of phenotypic stability for conservation varieties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the area of seed policies, the dominant paradigm of agricultural development favors the strengthening of intellectual property rights in order to promote and reward innovation by the private sector, combined with the provision of improved seed varieties to farmers in order to help them produce higher yields. But this model may leave out precisely those who need most to be supported, because they are the most vulnerable, living in the most difficult environments. In contrast to dominant approach, this article argues that the poorest farmers would be the primary beneficiaries of an alternative policy, that would favor the maintenance and enhancement of agrobiodiversity by rewarding the farmers for their own innovations, and by treating genetic resources as a public good that should be made accessible to all, as has been the case traditionally in farmers' seed systems. There are other ways of putting science at the service of farmers that may be more effective in reducing rural poverty. This article assesses in this light the complex relationship between the right to adequate food and the right of everyone to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and its applications. Both rights are recognized by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. They need to be made more mutually supportive in the future, if research in agriculture is to truly serve the needs of the poor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn) is a highly nutritious crop, predominantly grown in the semi-arid tropics of the world. Finger millet has a niche market opportunity due to its human health benefits and being rich in calcium, iron and dietary fiber and gluten-free. Ethiopia is the center of the genetic diversity of the crop. However, the productivity of finger millet in the country is low (<2.4 tons ha−1) compared with its potential yield (6 tons ha−1). The yield gap in Ethiopia is due to a range of biotic and abiotic stresses and socio-economic constraints that are yet to be systemically documented and prioritized to guide future production and improved variety development and release. The objective of this study was to document finger millet production opportunities, constraints and farmer-preferred traits in Ethiopia as a guide to variety design in improvement programs. A participatory rural appraisal (PRA) study was undertaken in six selected districts of the Southern Nation Nationalities People Region (SNNPR) and Oromia Region in Ethiopia. Data were collected from 240 and 180 participant farmers through a semi-structured questionnaire and focus group discussion, respectively. Finger millet was the most important crop in the study areas grown mainly for a combination of uses, including for food, feed and cash (reported by 38.8% of respondent farmers), food and feed (14.5%), food and cash (13.7%), food (11.5%) and food, cash, feed and construction material (9.7%). Hand weeding was used by 59.2% of the respondent farmers, followed by hand weeding and chemical herbicides (40.8%). Finger millet was mainly planted as a sole crop (reported by 97.0% respondents), mixed (1.7%) and sole and mixed (1.3%). About 75.6% of respondent farmers only practiced finger millet rotation with other crops. Respondent farmers indicated their source of fresh seed was from the Bureau of Agriculture (49.1%), farmer-to-farmer seed exchange (22.1%), own saved seed (7.5%), local producers (7.5%), research institutions (5.8%), unknown sources (4.1%), local market (3.5%) and cooperatives (0.42%). The total cost of finger millet production per hectare was calculated at 1249 USD with a total income of 2139 USD/ha, making a benefit to cost ratio of 1.71:1.00 and indicating the relatively low yield gains using the currently grown varieties. The main constraints to finger millet production in the study areas were drought stress (reported by 41.3% respondents), lack of improved varieties (12.9%), lack of financial resources (11.3%), small land holdings (10.8%), limited access to seed (10.0%), a shortage of fertilizers (5.4%), poor soil fertility (4.6%), shortage of draught power (1.3%), labour shortages (1.3%) and high labour costs (1.3%). The most important farmer-preferred traits in a finger millet variety were high grain yield, compact head shape, 'enjera'-making quality, high marketability and early maturity, resolved through principal component analysis. The above-mentioned production constraints and farmer-preferred traits are strategic drivers to enhance finger millet productivity and need to be incorporated into Ethiopia's finger millet breeding and technology development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author reflects on the relationship between human and plant in connection with agriculture and introduces a brief discussion on Genetic Use Restriction Technologies (GURTs). He argues that these technologies are fundamentals in writing ownership into protein molecules and the property of plants produces an engineered seed-death that sets off all future generations of the plant. In this article, he broaden his focus on conventional criticism of GURTs which became part into globalized economy.

South Africa is considered a food-secure nation; however, food insecurity is still a major challenge for many poor rural households that rely on cash incomes and government grants for survival. Furthermore, these grants are not always adequate to meet households' basic needs, and fail to provide them with the food required for food and nutrition security. Some of these households rely on agriculture to supplement their food needs, and an important aspect of this agricultural production is the seed system. Smallholder farmers in rural areas rely on informal seed systems, and use traditional knowledge and methods to produce, harvest, store, and sell their produce. This research combined quantitative and qualitative methods to assess the role of informal seed systems in promoting food production in rural smallholder agricultural households in South Africa. The narrative review showed reword that while smallholder farmers acquire seed from informal seed systems, they face numerous challenges that affect their production activities. These challenges include poor seed quality and assessment, poor storage and harvesting facilities, which limit proper seed production, and affect crop yield and marketing. Due to these challenges, the ability of rural smallholder farmers to access mainstream markets is limited and as a result, they are confined to local markets that offer lower prices. Moreover, South African policies do not recognize the informal seed system as one of the contributors to food security. This is a major limitation as farmers may not receive the support and assistance they require. Formal recognition and support for informal seed systems would go a long way in improving smallholder farmers' access to quality seed. This would have ripple effects on their yields and productivity. When properly implemented and given recognition by the government, informal seed systems have the potential to contribute to rural food security and livelihoods. Key words: Informal, Seeds, Quality, Security, Smallholder, Production, Challenges, Policies, INTRODUCTION The agricultural sector is a major contributor to the livelihoods of many rural South Africans [1]. It accounts for approximately 2.3% of the country's GDP, 40% of export earnings, [...]