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Respect for teachers is a globally recognized educational issue. Compared with Western "equality-based" respect, the traditional Confucian "respect for teachers" is a kind of "hierarchical" or "reverential" respect. In the past, respect for teachers was an unquestioned ethical value in Confucian cultural contexts, and was considered beneficial for students. However, respect for teachers has been criticized as a symbol of authority and detrimental to learning and teacher-student relationships nowadays. To resolve the "controversy regarding respect for teachers," we used the conceptual framework of respect for teachers to investigate the predictive effects of respect-for-teachers' dual dimensions on teacher-student relationship and students' academic engagement. In Study 1, a scale for respect-for-teachers was developed. Two factors, reverence for teachers (RFT) and fear of teachers (FOT) were obtained, through exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Study 1 (a cross-sectional design) also shows that RFT is positively associated with good teacher-student relationships and students' academic engagement, while FOT is negatively associated these outcomes. Study 2 (a two-wave longitudinal design) reveals that controlling for social desirability, RFT at time 1 has a positive relationship with good teacher-student relationships and academic engagement at time 2, while FOT at time 1 has a negative relationship with good teacher-student relationships and academic engagement at time 2. Overall, this paper provides a solution to the "controversy regarding respect for teachers," that is, whether respect for teachers is beneficial or harmful depends on its dimensions. This paper also contributes to a broader understanding of the concept of "respect" and offers insights into educational issues within East Asia and across different cultures.

The increasing cultural diversity in host society schools highlights the need to better understand the conditions supporting the integration of students with an immigrant background. This study examines whether peer acceptance enhances the association between student-teacher relationship closeness and classroom emotional engagement, and whether this association is moderated by student immigrant status. This study followed 251 fifth- and sixth-grade first- (34.3%), second- (49.4%), or third-generation-plus (16.3%) students across two school years (46.6% boys). Measures included child-reported classroom emotional engagement, student-teacher relationships, peer acceptance, and immigrant status. Using a hierarchical multiple linear regression model, this study demonstrates that positive relationships with teachers represent a protective factor for classroom emotional engagement among students who do not feel accepted by classmates, but only for first-generation students (b = 0.46, p < 0.001). Our results underscore the importance of developing intervention strategies for building student-teacher relationships to benefit the classroom integration of first-generation students.

Abstract This research explored the link between teacher-student relationships and learning engagement, considering perceived social support as a mediator and academic self-efficacy as a moderator. A total of 930 college students completed the Academic Self-Efficacy Scale, Teacher-Student Relationships Questionnaire, Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, and College Student Learning Engagement Questionnaire. Mediating and moderating effects were investigated using SPSS19.0 and one of its process plugins 3.5. The findings indicated (1) teacher-student relationships positively predicted learning engagement; (2) perceived social support mediated the link between teacher-student relationships and learning engagement; and (3) academic self-efficacy moderated the initial phase of the pathway to the mediating role of perceived social support. Moreover, the mediating effect was more significant at elevated academic self-efficacy levels. Establishing harmonious relationships between teachers and students, nurturing students’ confidence in their academic abilities , and expanding students’ access to social support were essential to boosting the educational involvement of college students. The study findings will help educators enhance college students’ engagement in learning and provide recommendations for educators to conduct educational and teaching activities.

Large body of researches has been consistently linked L2 motivation to L2WTC, indicating a significant positive correlation between the two. Yet, the influence of teacher-student relationships on this correlation remains understudied. This research investigates how teacher-student relationships influences the correlation between L2 motivation and L2WTC, as well as to investigate the variations in this influence across varying qualities of teacher-student relationships. Utilizing established scales, questionnaires were distributed to the entire population of SMP Negeri 51 Surabaya, resulting in 222 responses for analysis. Moderation analysis via regression analysis was employed to analyse the data. The findings showed that teacher-student relationships do not significantly moderate the correlation between students' L2 motivation and their L2WTC, nor do they significantly differ in influence across varying qualities. Although statistical significance was not achieved at the conventional threshold, the study hints the potential significance of teacher-student relationships in sustaining L2WTC, particularly in contexts where L2 motivation may be lacking. Thus, while not meeting statistical significance at conventional thresholds, the results underscore the importance of fostering positive teacher-student relationships in language learning contexts.

Positive perceptions of the school social environment have been found to be associated with a host of positive outcomes. However, English language learners (ELL) might be less likely to have positive perceptions of their school environment or a strong sense of school belonging compared with their fluent English-speaking peers. The purpose of the present study was to examine predictors of 10th-grade ELL students' perceptions of the school and students' perceptions of their relationships with their teachers. Student characteristics such as their level of English ability and school characteristics such as the demographics of the student and teacher populations at the school, as well as policies and opportunities afforded by the environment, were also considered. ELLs had lower positive perceptions of school climate, but higher positive perceptions of teacher-student relationships than their peers. English proficiency predicted positive perceptions of school climate, but was not significantly related to teacher-student relationships. In turn, perceptions of school climate were important contributors in explaining reading scores for ELLs after taking language proficiency into account, while teacher-student relationships were a significant factor in predicting GPA. Implications are discussed.

The current study examined whether moral disengagement would mediate the association between adolescents' teacher-student relationships and classroom incivility and sex and age differences in this mediation model. We also examined whether the mediating effect of moral disengagement would be moderated by negative coping styles. Participants comprised 2646 Chinese students (mean age = 13.85 years, SD = 1.45). Results indicated that teacher-student relationships were significantly and negatively associated with adolescents' classroom incivility and moral disengagement mediated this association. Furthermore, this mediating process differed between males and females as well as early and middle adolescents. Specifically, males were more likely to use moral disengagement strategies to engage in classroom incivility than females. Age moderated the association between teacher-student relationships and moral disengagement as well as moral disengagement and classroom incivility, and these two associations became stronger for early adolescents than for middle adolescents. Moreover, negative coping styles moderated the association between teacher-student relationships and classroom incivility and the association between moral disengagement and classroom incivility. The direct association between teacher-student relationships and classroom incivility became nonsignificant for adolescents with high negative coping styles. The study contributes to clarifying the mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying the effect of teacher-student relationships on adolescents' classroom incivility.

Teachers' intrinsic motivation for teaching and students' intrinsic motivation for learning are important contributors to effective teaching and learning, and exploring their relationships and influencing mechanisms can clarify the path to promote teachers' professional development and students' overall growth. In our study, 44 secondary school teachers and 2461 secondary school students completed questionnaires, and a multilevel structural equation model was used to explore the influence of teachers' intrinsic motivation for teaching on students' intrinsic motivation for learning and the mediating role of teachers' motivating style and teacher-student relationships. The results showed that (1) teachers' intrinsic motivation for teaching was significantly positively correlated with students' intrinsic motivation for learning, and the former had a significant direct effect on the latter; (2) teachers' autonomy-supporting motivating style, positive teacher-student relationships, and negative teacher-student relationships played mediating roles between teachers' intrinsic motivation for teaching and students' intrinsic motivation for learning; and (3) teachers' motivating style and teacher-student relationships played a chained mediating role between teachers' intrinsic motivation for teaching and students' intrinsic motivation for learning.

This study proposed and validated a mediation model based on the nearest developmental zone and mediation concepts of sociocultural theory to explore the mediating role of emotional intelligence and ethnic categories between teacher-student relationships and feedback literacy among high school students in Tibetan areas of China. A questionnaire survey was administered to 422 Tibetan high school students (including 136 Han Chinese students and 286 Tibetan students) using the Feedback Literacy Scale, the Teacher-Student Relationship Scale, and the Emotional Intelligence Scale. The results showed that teacher-student relationships of high school students in Tibetan areas significantly and positively predicted their feedback literacy. The result of the mediation model analysis indicated that the emotional intelligence of high school students in Tibetan areas partially mediated the effect between teacher-student relationships and feedback literacy. In addition, the moderated mediation model analysis indicated that the teacher-student relationship had a stronger effect on feedback literacy through emotional intelligence for Han Chinese high school students than for Tibetan high school students. The present findings not only enrich our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the influence of teacher-student relationships and feedback literacy, but also reveal the differential role played by ethnic categories. The study also provides a discussion of the results, corresponding recommendations, and directions for future research.

This study investigated the relationship between principal job satisfaction, distributed leadership, teacher-student relationships, and student reading achievement in Turkey. Using school- and teacher-level data from the PISA 2018 and TALIS 2018, we conducted a mediated-effect with antecedent effect model, in which the construct of teacher-student relationships was proposed as the mediator of the effects of distributed leadership on student achievement, while principal job satisfaction was included as the antecedent of distributed leadership. The results confirmed the indirect effect of distributed leadership on student achievement through teacher-student relationships. We also found that principal job satisfaction exercised a positive and significant effect on the enactment of distributed leadership practices. This study adds evidence to the international literature suggesting that principal job satisfaction is an important mechanism for distributed leadership practices and that the execution of such practices improves student achievement by promoting teacher-student relationships. Implications for policy, practice, and research are discussed.

Purpose: Recently, the pace of pedagogical change in the field of social-emotional learning (SEL) has increased worldwide; hence, there is a greater need to understand and promote social-emotional elements in education systems. The purpose of this study was to explore the implementation of SEL content and practices in the curricula of teacher-education courses while being mindful of the principles underlying teacher-student relationships. Design/methodology/approach: Using a qualitative methodology, data were collected from 55 students enrolled in three courses taught at a college in Israel. The participants wrote reflections on their SEL experiences, which were analyzed using thematic analysis. Findings: The students' responses revealed various practices and themes that significantly affected their personal and professional development, among them, the relationships in the classroom, both among the preservice students themselves and between them and the teaching staff. The participants also noted that the SEL components of the course influenced the quality of learning and the development of a professional identity that is actively attuned to elements of SEL. Research limitations/implications: By introducing SEL early in the preservice stage, preservice teachers learn to create safe and supportive environments for their future students, thus improving students' academic achievements, behavior and well-being. Originality/value: The study underscores the importance of embedding SEL in the teacher-education curricula and its influence on both preservice teachers' learning experience and the formulation of their image as future teachers while highlighting the significant role of teacher-student relationships in promoting healthy personal and professional development.

The purpose of this study was to investigate how caring student-teacher relationships facilitate positive student behavior. Additionally, it examined the effect of student behavior when building positive student-teacher relationships. Previous research by the authors determined that when teachers build relationships with children it is one of the most effective strategies to impact student learning. A secondary implication identified by the participants and their administrators in that study was that building relationships can create a positive classroom environment resulting in fewer discipline disruptions. This current study was conducted to measure the relationships between school children, in grades K-8 in the USA, and their teachers using a standardized instrument before and after a two-week implementation of a positive behavioral intervention and supports strategy to determine if there are any significant differences. The participants involved in this study are comprised of classroom teachers in their first year of teaching, and experienced classroom teachers (5+ years).

The quality of teacher-student relationships (TSRs) has been shown to predict various academic and social, emotional, and behavioral outcomes for adolescent students and is also one of the most important aspects of teacher wellbeing. Therefore, measures of TSRs are essential for schools as they provide insight into the quality of these relationships. Many theoretical frameworks have been used to explain the importance of TSRs, yet conceptualizations of TSRs in the literature have narrowly focused on Western cultures. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore the varied conceptualizations of TSRs across cultures by examining the items across student and teacher-reported measures of adolescent TSRs. A review of the literature identified 25 rating scale measures of TSRs that had been specifically developed and validated for use with adolescents across Asia, Europe, and North America. Thematic analysis suggested six major themes that are relevant to adolescent TSRs: positive teaching qualities; negative interpersonal interactions; classroom management; instructional methods; positive student qualities, and classroom climate. How these themes were conceptualized, however, varied by geographic region.

Background: In the wake of the COVID-19 school closures during 2020, there was much concern about the transition back to in-person classroom teaching and learning, given the many safety protocols in place that could make it more difficult for teachers to connect with students. Purpose: This small-scale case study from the USA sought to gain insight into teachers' experiences of building and maintaining relationships with students during the return to in-person schooling in the 2020-2021 school year and consider implications for teaching and learning beyond the pandemic. Method: An interview protocol that stimulated discussion about relationships and involved diagram creation was used. This allowed the experiences of two teachers to be explored, in depth, through the lens of emotional closeness. Both teachers were interviewed at four points during the school year. Data were analysed qualitatively. Findings: Through close analysis of the data, the two teachers' experiences of forming and maintaining relationships with students emerged. Findings resonated with some previous research on teacher-student relationship formation and also drew attention to the nuanced changes of habit on the part of the teacher that were required in terms of initiation and engagement. Conclusion: The study highlights the significance of teachers' adaptive expertise, which can often be overlooked in daily practice. More broadly, it suggests a need for teacher education to place emphasis on the development of relationship skills, for the benefit of teachers and students alike.

Previous studies have shown that peer victimization causes a great variety of severe adverse effects on children's development, and it is necessary to explore the influential factors and mechanisms of peer victimization. This study examined the associations between teacher-student relationships and peer victimization, as well as the roles of peer status and gender in China. The participants were 734 primary school students from Grades 5 ~ 6. Structural equation models were conducted to test the roles of peer status in the associations between teacher-student relationships and peer victimization, as well as the gender differences in the above associations. The findings showed that teacher-student closeness negatively predicted peer victimization, and teacher-student conflict positively predicted peer victimization. It was also found that teacher-student conflict but not closeness could negatively predict peer status, which was in turn negatively associated with peer victimization. The above associations did not vary across genders. The findings indicated that both teacher-student closeness and conflict were directly associated with children's peer victimization, and teacher-student conflict was indirectly associated with peer victimization via peer status. This implies that interventions for decreasing children's peer victimization should not only focus on improving teacher-student relationships but also target peer status.

This study investigated the relationship between principal job satisfaction, distributed leadership, teacher-student relationships, and student reading achievement in Turkey. Using school- and teacher-level data from the PISA 2018 and TALIS 2018, we conducted a mediated-effect with antecedent effect model, in which the construct of teacher-student relationships was proposed as the mediator of the effects of distributed leadership on student achievement, while principal job satisfaction was included as the antecedent of distributed leadership. The results confirmed the indirect effect of distributed leadership on student achievement through teacher-student relationships. We also found that principal job satisfaction exercised a positive and significant effect on the enactment of distributed leadership practices. This study adds evidence to the international literature suggesting that principal job satisfaction is an important mechanism for distributed leadership practices and that the execution of such practices improves student achievement by promoting teacher-student relationships. Implications for policy, practice, and research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Teachers are masters of content and of creating connections (e.g., students-content, students-students, teacher-students, teacher-parents). Both impact one's ability to create and sustain brave and productive learning environments. Teachers connect students to the content, and to each other. At the top of the list of important connections are teacher-student and teacher-parent relationships. In the current paper, we examine these relationships from the perspective of parents of middle school students with disabilities, an under-studied group. We describe theories of learning that support investigating these relationships from parents' perspectives and outline why this could be an impactful lens for teachers to consider. We share questions asked and surveys used to better understand teacher-parent and teacher-student relationships from middle school parents' perspectives and describe the results of eight studies that have focused on parents of students with disabilities. Parents confirmed that teacher-student and teacher-parent relationships are important to their students' learning. Results also suggest that there are limited reliable measures assessing parents' perspectives of teacher-student and/or teacher-parent relationships. Implications of these findings for future research and teaching practices are explored.

Purpose: Recently, the pace of pedagogical change in the field of social-emotional learning (SEL) has increased worldwide; hence, there is a greater need to understand and promote social-emotional elements in education systems. The purpose of this study was to explore the implementation of SEL content and practices in the curricula of teacher-education courses while being mindful of the principles underlying teacher–student relationships. Design/methodology/approach: Using a qualitative methodology, data were collected from 55 students enrolled in three courses taught at a college in Israel. The participants wrote reflections on their SEL experiences, which were analyzed using thematic analysis. Findings: The students' responses revealed various practices and themes that significantly affected their personal and professional development, among them, the relationships in the classroom, both among the preservice students themselves and between them and the teaching staff. The participants also noted that the SEL components of the course influenced the quality of learning and the development of a professional identity that is actively attuned to elements of SEL. Research limitations/implications: By introducing SEL early in the preservice stage, preservice teachers learn to create safe and supportive environments for their future students, thus improving students' academic achievements, behavior and well-being. Originality/value: The study underscores the importance of embedding SEL in the teacher-education curricula and its influence on both preservice teachers' learning experience and the formulation of their image as future teachers while highlighting the significant role of teacher–student relationships in promoting healthy personal and professional development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the effort to "flatten the curve" of the COVID-19 pandemic, teachers were required to adapt their curricula, pedagogy, and relationships with their students to remote learning structures. Using data gathered through an online qualitative survey of over 800 Chicago teachers in July 2020, this article will examine the ways that the shift to remote learning challenged teachers' relationships with their students during the spring of 2020. By utilizing social presence theory and considering the significance of emotional connection in teacher-student relationships, the study captures some of the relational challenges that teachers experienced during the initial months of remote instruction. The study identifies increased individualization, deeper holistic understandings of students, and a diversity of mechanisms of engagement as pedagogical techniques that allowed teachers to maintain and even improve their relationships with students.

Whereas developing meaningful connections with students has long been documented as critical for promoting classroom engagement, teachers' differing motives for building relationships with students remain underexplored. This study examined teachers' social achievement goals from a multidimensional perspective in relation to teachers' self-efficacy, teacher-student relationships, and perceived classroom engagement. Results from practicing K-12 teachers (N = 154) from across Canada showed three distinct goal orientations including social mastery-approach, social mastery-avoidance, and social ability goals (combining social ability-approach and social ability-avoidance goals). Teachers who aimed to develop better social skills with students (social mastery-approach goals) reported higher self-efficacy, better relationships with students, and greater classroom engagement. In contrast, social goal orientations focused on not losing connections with students (social mastery-avoidance goals) or being well-liked (social ability goals) did not correspond with self-efficacy or classroom outcomes. Implications concerning integrative pedagogies and growth mind-sets pertaining to relationship building were discussed.

Student well-being has gained prominence on both the scientific and political agendas, as it is recognized as a crucial skill in addressing the economic, ecological, and social challenges of the 21st century. Relationships that students form with teachers and peers in the classroom are important for their academic, social, and emotional development. Building and maintaining positive relationships contributes to psychological growth and well-being. This article strives for a deeper understanding of the association between student well-being and classroom relationships from the students’ perspective. Mediation regression analysis was conducted between student well-being, teacher–student relationships, and student–student relationships to overcome limitations of prior studies using a unidimensional approach on student well-being and considering relationships in separate models. This study shows that both relationships are related to student well-being, however associations differ regarding different dimensions of student well-being and students’ individual factors such as gender, migration background, and socio-economic status. Providing a multi-dimensional approach on student well-being as well as taking both relationships into account adds to a profound understanding of processes in classrooms. Insights on these relations can help educators, schools and researchers develop strategies to foster relationships in the classroom and, in succession, enhance well-being in school.

In the wake of the COVID-19 school closures during 2020, there was much concern about the transition back to in-person classroom teaching and learning, given the many safety protocols in place that could make it more difficult for teachers to connect with students. This small-scale case study from the USA sought to gain insight into teachers' experiences of building and maintaining relationships with students during the return to in-person schooling in the 2020–2021 school year and consider implications for teaching and learning beyond the pandemic. An interview protocol that stimulated discussion about relationships and involved diagram creation was used. This allowed the experiences of two teachers to be explored, in depth, through the lens of emotional closeness. Both teachers were interviewed at four points during the school year. Data were analysed qualitatively. Through close analysis of the data, the two teachers' experiences of forming and maintaining relationships with students emerged. Findings resonated with some previous research on teacher-student relationship formation and also drew attention to the nuanced changes of habit on the part of the teacher that were required in terms of initiation and engagement. The study highlights the significance of teachers' adaptive expertise, which can often be overlooked in daily practice. More broadly, it suggests a need for teacher education to place emphasis on the development of relationship skills, for the benefit of teachers and students alike. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As age increases, children will face more and more adversity. How effectively they cope with stress and difficulties of life is of great significance to the development of children’s mental health and academic achievement. However, few studies have explored how different interpersonal relationships and psychological suzhi work together to influence children’s healthy behaviors, particularly healthy coping in adversity. Therefore, this research focused on the teacher–student relationships and coping styles, as well as the chain-mediated effects of peer relationships and psychological suzhi. A total of 688 children (360 boys, 52.3%; Mage = 10.98 and SD = 0.89) completed questionnaires that assessed using teacher–student relationships, peer relationships, psychological suzhi, and coping styles. The results indicated that teacher–student relationships correlated positively with coping styles, peer relationships, and psychological suzhi in children. Besides, teacher–student relationships positively affected coping styles through both the mediating roles of peer relationships and psychological suzhi. This research elucidated the extrinsic and intrinsic factors impacting the coping styles of children, thus providing empirical validation of existing theoretical frameworks. In China, interventions aimed at promoting Chinese children’s positive coping could benefit from strategies focused on cultivating high-quality relationships and enhancing psychological suzhi.

Teacher development involves the dynamic interplay between emotional intelligence and emotions. While previous research links these factors with their professional identity, teaching enthusiasm, and teacher-student relationships, the development characteristics of emotional intelligence and emotions remain unexplored in relation to these outcomes. In a two-year study with 357 novice teachers, emotional intelligence and emotions were tracked thrice. Data on professional identity, enthusiasm, and teacher-student relationships were collected at the final assessment. Latent growth curve modelling results revealed that only positive emotions, not negative ones, mediate the connection. Specifically, the initial level of positive emotions mediated the link between the initial level of emotional intelligence and teaching enthusiasm, professional identity, and teacher-student relationships. The growth rate of positive emotions notably mediated the relationship between emotional intelligence and professional identity, teaching enthusiasm, and teacher-student relationships. These findings offer new insights into the development of teachers’ emotional intelligence, emotions, and professional growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has shown that teacher–student relationships influence student engagement, which, in turn, plays a key role in academic achievement. However, few studies have focused on the mechanism between the teacher–student relationship and student engagement. To address this gap in the literature, this study examined the link between teacher–student relationships and college students' engagement via the mediator of peer relationships. The sample consisted of 222 university students in Southwest China. Results of structural equation modeling showed that a positive teacher–student relationship was positively related to student engagement, and peer relationships partially mediated this relationship. Our findings will help researchers and educators to better understand the mechanism of the link between teacher–student relationships and student engagement, and provide practical suggestions for improving college students' engagement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior research has demonstrated that teacher-student relationships characterized by high levels of closeness and low levels of conflict are associated with higher levels of academic achievement among children. At the same time: (a) some research suggests that the quality of teacher-student relationships in part reflects the quality of early caregiving, and (b) the observed quality of early care by primary caregivers robustly predicts subsequent academic achievement. Given the potential for associations between teacher-student relationship quality and academic achievement to thus be confounded by the quality of early parenting experiences, the present study examined to what extent children's experiences in early life with primary caregivers (i.e., ages 3 to 42 months) and relationships with teachers during grade school (i.e., Kindergarten to Grade 6) were uniquely associated with an objective assessment of academic achievement at age 16 years in a sample born into poverty (N = 267; 45% female; 65% White/non-Hispanic; 41% of mothers did not complete high school). Early maternal sensitivity, though a strong predictor of later academic achievement, was not reliably associated with either teacher-reports or interview-based assessments of teacher-student relationship quality in grade school. Nonetheless, early maternal sensitivity and teacher-student relationship quality were each uniquely associated with later academic achievement, above and beyond key demographic variables. Taken together, the present results highlight that the quality of children's relationships with adults at home and at school independently, but not interactively, predicted later academic achievement in a high-risk sample.

Teacher-student relationships (TSR) have been a key focus of study for developmental and educational psychology researchers interested in improving proximal and distal academic outcomes for children and youth. Although prior empirical work suggests some degree of association between TSR and achievement, the co-development of TSR and achievement during elementary grades remains unclear with most findings limited to reading and mathematics achievement. The current study used parallel process growth curve models (PPGCMs) to examine the longitudinal growth trajectories of teacher-student closeness and conflict, and science, reading, and mathematics achievement simultaneously for children followed from kindergarten to third grade in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-2011 (N = 13,490). Findings from the final PPGCM showed teacher-student closeness in kindergarten was positively associated with science, reading and mathematics achievement in kindergarten (r = 0.234 to 0.277) and the linear growth of achievement through third grade (r = 0.068 to 0.156). Teacher-student conflict in kindergarten was negatively associated with science, reading, and mathematics achievement in kindergarten (r = −0.099 to −0.203) and the linear growth of achievement through third grade (r = −0.081 to −0.135). Child biological sex, family socioeconomic status, and child racial and ethnic identity predicted TSR and achievement developmental trends. Implications of the findings and future directions for research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]