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Sensitivity to FVIII inhibitors of the native plasma-derived (pd) FVIII/VWF complex vs. the complexes formed after exogenous FVIII infusion in the haemophilic patient has not been thoroughly studied. The role of VWF in the interaction of FVIII with inhibitors was studied in vitro using different combinations of VWF and FVIII concentrates. Normal plasma, pdFVIII/VWF and isolated FVIII (recombinant FVIII, B-domain deleted and pdFVIII) were used. Titre (BU) was kinetically determined (up to 2 h) in serial dilutions of inhibitor IgG (purified from a pool of plasmas with inhibitors) mixed with VWF and then incubated with the different FVIII. Inhibitor was also added to previously mixed VWF+FVIII. Residual FVIII:C was determined. TGA assays were performed with FVIII-deficient plasma spiked with the FVIII-VWF mixtures with/without an ESH-8 antibody. Inhibitor titres for plasma and pdFVIII/VWF were comparable at all time points. Titres for all concentrates of isolated FVIII were significantly higher than those for plasma or pdFVIII/VWF (1.4–1.9 fold) even after preincubation with VWF. At t = 0 h, titres for plasma or pdFVIII/VWF were unquantifiable, but were detectable for isolated FVIII (0.6–1.6 BU). In contrast to pdFVIII/VWF, the decrease in thrombin generation parameters by isolated FVIII in the presence of ESH-8 was significant (P

SummaryThe burden of disease in haemophilia patients has wide ranging implications for the family and to society. There is evidence that having a current inhibitor increases the risk of morbidity and mortality. Morbidity is increased by the inability to treat adequately and its consequent disabilities, which then equates to a poor quality of life compared with non-inhibitor patients. The societal cost of care, or `burden of inhibitors’, increases with the ongoing presence of an inhibitor. Therefore, it is clear that successful eradication of inhibitors by immune tolerance induction (ITI) is the single most important milestone one can achieve in an inhibitor patient. The type of factor VIII (FVIII) product used in ITI regimens varies worldwide. Despite ongoing debate, there is in vitro and retrospective clinical evidence to support the use of plasma-derived VWF-containing FVIII concentrates in ITI regimens in order to achieve early and high inhibitor eradication success rates.

Summary. Development of factor VIII (FVIII) inhibitors is the most severe and challenging complication of haemophilia A treatment and represents the highest economic burden for a chronic disease. Therefore, major research efforts are ongoing to optimize the therapeutic approaches able to minimize this complication. FVIII inhibitors have variable immuno-reactivity against different FVIII concentrates and generally have a lower reactivity against von Willebrand factor (VWF)-containing FVIII concentrates than plasma-derived FVIII (pdFVIII) or recombinant FVIII (rFVIII) that are devoid of VWF, in particular when the inhibitors are directed against the light chain of FVIII. This paper provides an overview of several in vitro and in vivo studies that compared three clinically available clinical FVIII products (Kogenate®, Bayer AG, Leverkusen, Germany; Advate®, Baxter Healthcare, Zurich, Switzerland; and Fanhdi®, Grifols S.A., Barcelona, Spain) in order to evaluate the functional actvity of the FVIII fractions in rFVIII that cannot bind VWF; explore the use of the thrombin generation assay (TGA) as a potential tool for optimizing the choice of FVIII concentrate for use in haemophilia A patients with inhibitors; compare the kinetics of the interactions between anti-FVIII antibodies and FVIII both in the presence/absence of VWF, using surface plasmon resonance.

Summary. von Willebrand factor (VWF) has the capa-city to form a complex with factor VIII (FVIII) whichmay modulate the immunogenicity of FVIII. It has beenproposed that a significant fraction of recombinantFVIII (rFVIII) is unable to bind VWF. In an experi-mental model studied at the McMaster University inCanada, this VWF-unbound rFVIII fraction showed nocoagulant function. Sulphation of FVIII tyrosine (Tyr)1680 has been reported as essential for the interactionwith VWF. In a study performed at the Grifols andCNS-CSIC in Spain, Tyr1680 sulphation was observedto be incomplete in rFVIII and complete in plasma-derived FVIII (pdFVIII). This could explain the incap-ability of some rFVIII molecules to bind VWF.Experience with immune tolerance induction (ITI) atthe Bonn Haemophilia Centre indicates that onlyeradication of FVIII inhibitors allows safe haemostasiscontrol and the option of prophylactic treatment.Various clinical trials were planned to evaluate theclinical role VWF-containing FVIII concentrates (FVIII/VWF). RES.I.ST (an acronym for REScue Immunoto-lerance STudy) is an international, prospective studyaimed at assessing whether FVIII/VWF can induce ITI inhigh-risk haemophilia patients (RES.I.ST nai¨ve) andwhether patients who previously failed ITI with FVIIIalone can be rescued with FVIII/VWF (RES.I.STexperienced). Enrolment started in November 2009.In the FAIReSt.Will (Fanhdi and Alphanate ItalianRetrospective Study in Willebrand disease) study, 120von Willebrand disease (VWD) patients treated withFanhdi or Alphanate were retrospectively analysed.Efficacy was excellent and no side effects were reported.The ongoing PRO.Will study is a prospective, multi-center trial aimed at assessing the efficacy, safety andpharmacoeconomics of secondary long-term prophy-laxis in patients with severe inherited VWD.Keywords: factor VIII, immune tolerance induction, immu-nogenicity, inhibitors, Tyrosine 1680, von Willebrandfactor

SummaryEpidemiological studies suggest that hormone replacement therapy (HRT) decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease in postmenopausal women via several mechanisms, including modifications in the fibrinolytic system and lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] levels. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of the levels and isoforms of Lp(a) on fibrinolytic activity in 91 postmenopausal women in comparison with premenopause and analyze the effect of HRT on those parameters. In postmenopause, an increase in plasma Lp(a) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) levels was found. A significant inverse correlation was observed between Lp(a) or PAI-1 levels and plasmin generation. Plasma samples with low molecular weight (MW) apo(a) isoforms showed higher plasmin inhibition than plasmas with high MW apo(a) isoforms and similar levels of total Lp(a) and PAI-1. HRT induced a significant decrease in Lp(a) and PAI-1 levels and an increase in estradiol levels, as well as an increase in fibrinolytic activity. A significant correlation was found between the percentages of variation in Lp(a) levels and in plasmin generation and between the percentages of variation in PAI-1 levels and in the euglobulin lysis time under HRT. In conclusion, the increase in fibrinolytic activity observed in women under HRT could be explained by two independent mechanisms: (a) the decrease in PAI-1 and (b) the decrease in the inhibition of plasmin generation due to the decrease in Lp(a) levels.

Summary Objective : To accurately localize type-1 plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1) both in atherosclerotic and normal human coronary arteries and to determine which cells are responsible for its production. Design : Immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization over paraffin embedded samples obtained from patients subjected to heart transplant in ‘La Fe’ University Hospital, Valencia, Spain. Results : PAI-1 mRNA is clearly detectable in atherosclerotic coronary artery, both in endothelial cells and in smooth muscle cells (SMCs) in the connective tissue of the thickened intima, while in the core of the plaque macrophages are the main PAI-1 producer cells. This pattern is coincident with PAI-1 antigen localization. In arteries appearing to be normal, PAI-1 antigen and mRNA were only slightly detectable or not at all. Conclusion : PAI-1 expression and antigen are increased in endothelial cells from atherosclerotic arteries. PAI-1 mRNA and antigen are also present in the SMCs from thickened arteries and in macrophages in the core of the plaque. These results suggest that PAI-1 may be involved in the development, evolution and final outcome of the atherosclerotic plaque.

Development of factor VIII (FVIII) inhibitors is the most severe and challenging complication of haemophilia A treatment and represents the highest economic burden for a chronic disease. Therefore, major research efforts are ongoing to optimize the therapeutic approaches able to minimize this complication. FVIII inhibitors have variable immuno-reactivity against different FVIII concentrates and generally have a lower reactivity against von Willebrand factor (VWF)-containing FVIII concentrates than plasma-derived FVIII (pdFVIII) or recombinant FVIII (rFVIII) that are devoid of VWF, in particular when the inhibitors are directed against the light chain of FVIII. This paper provides an overview of several in vitro and in vivo studies that compared three clinically available clinical FVIII products (Kogenate®, Bayer AG, Leverkusen, Germany; Advate®, Baxter Healthcare, Zurich, Switzerland; and Fanhdi®, Grifols S.A., Barcelona, Spain) in order to evaluate the functional actvity of the FVIII fractions in rFVIII that cannot bind VWF; explore the use of the thrombin generation assay (TGA) as a potential tool for optimizing the choice of FVIII concentrate for use in haemophilia A patients with inhibitors; compare the kinetics of the interactions between anti-FVIII antibodies and FVIII both in the presence/absence of VWF, using surface plasmon resonance.

Summary The presence of VWF in plasma-derived FVIII (pdFVIII/VWF) products has been pointed out as a key difference with recombinant FVIII (rFVIII) products with regard to immunogenicity. A Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) study was designed to characterize in detail the interaction between anti-FVIII (IgGs) from a severe haemophilia A patient, and FVIII from concentrates of different sources. Full-length rFVIII (preincubated or not with purified VWF), B domain-deleted (BDD)-rFVIII and pdFVIII/VWF were analysed. To ensure reproducible conditions for accurate determination of kinetic constants, a capture-based assay format was developed using protein G surfaces for specific and reversible coupling of endogenous anti-FVIII antibodies. Concentration ranges (nm) of FVIII products tested were 9–0.03 (rFVIII) and 6–0.024 (pdFVIII/VWF). The association with antibodies was monitored for 3–5 min, whereas dissociation of the complex was followed for 5–20–240 min. A strong interaction of rFVIII and BDD-rFVIII with patient's IgG was detected with the K D values in the low picomolar range (5.9 ± 3.0 and 12.7 ± 6.9 pm, respectively) and very slow dissociation rates, while pdFVIII/VWF showed only marginal binding signals. The VWF complexed rFVIII displayed reduced binding signals compared with uncomplexed rFVIII, but the K D was still in the picomolar range (4.1 ± 1.9 pm) indicating insufficient complex formation. rFVIII, alone or bound to exogenously added VWF, showed high affinity for anti-FVIII IgGs from a severe haemophilia A patient whereas pdFVIII/VWF did not. These results are in agreement with those studies that point towards rFVIII concentrates to be more immunogenic than pdFVIII concentrates.

Elevated plasma levels of type 1 plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI- 1) have been implicated in mediating the fibrin deposition and occlusive lesions that occur within the placental vasculature in preeclampsia (PE) and intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR). In this report we identify the cells within the normal-appearing villous tissue that are responsible for the local production of PAI-1 in women with PE and IUGR. Levels for another fibrinolytic inhibitor (ie, type 2 plasminogen activator inhibitor [PAI-2]) were determined for comparative purposes. Elevated levels of PAI-1 were detected in placenta extracts from PE/IUGR patients (121 +/- 38 ng/mg, n = 8) when compared with the levels in placenta extracts from normal women (43 +/- 17 ng/mg, n = 10) or women with IUGR but not PE (51 +/- 22 ng/mg, n = 11). Immunohistochemical analysis of paraffin sections showed an increased immunoreactivity for PAI-1 in the placental villous syncytiotrophoblasts from PE/IUGR women compared with the immunostaining of placental samples from the normal or IUGR group. In contrast, antigen levels and immunostaining for PAI-2 were reduced in the placentas harvested from not only the PE/IUGR women (209 +/- 144 ng/mg) but also the IUGR group (169 +/- 106 ng/mg) in comparison with the PAI-2 levels in normal placentas (535 +/- 98 ng/mg). To document that the increased immunoreactivity for PAI-1 in PE/IUGR syncytiotrophoblasts was mediated by an increased production of PAI-1 within these cells, in situ hybridization analysis was performed. A strong positive signal for PAI-1 mRNA in villous syncytiotrophoblasts from PE patients (n = 5) was obtained after 2 weeks of exposure to the NTB2 emulsion in comparison with the weak signal for PAI-1 mRNA that required a 10-week exposure of the normal placenta sections (n = 10). Northern blotting for PAI-1 mRNA showed that both transcripts (ie, 3.2 and 2.3 kb) were elevated in samples of two PE patients in comparison with the PAI-1 mRNA transcripts present in a normal placenta and an IUGR placental sample. These results show increased PAI-1 and mRNA levels in placentas from PE patients and raise the possibility that localized elevated levels of PAI-1 may play a role in the initiation of placental damage, as well as in the thrombotic complications associated with this disease.

The European Pharmacopoeia monograph on Human plasma for fractionation does not define the freezing process time but does define the freezing temperature (- 30 degrees C or below). Initial freezing conditions are crucial for the quality of plasma. These conditions were intended to preserve labile proteins such as fVIIl, but they can also be considered favourable for the plasma quality in general. This study evaluates the way the industrial plasma freezing affects labile coagulation factors. We have studied the freezing of plasma in industrial-size chambers at temperatures close to - 30 degrees C, - 25 degrees C and - 20 degrees C, and the possible differences between performing the freezing process in a chamber or in a freezer, in order to elucidate whether or not these parameters affect the quality of plasma. For this study, plasma bottles were frozen in industrial chambers set at - 30 degrees C, - 25 degrees C and - 20 degrees C, and in a freezer set at - 20 degrees C. The freezing rates were followed by means of probes in plasma control bottles. From this plasma, coagulation factors (fVIII, fIX and fibrinogen) were analysed before and after freezing, and cryoprecipitate was obtained in some cases. Statistically significant differences exist in fVIII:C recovery in thawed plasma between freezing at - 30 degrees C and at - 20 degrees C (n = 11; 85.4 +/- 4.3 % versus 74.6 +/- 6.0 % (chamber) or 79.3 +/- 6.3 % (freezer)). There is no difference between - 30 degrees C and - 25 degrees C, or between freezing at - 20 degrees C in a chamber or in a freezer. No significant loss of activity in thawed plasma is observed for fIX and fibrinogen at - 25 degrees C or - 20 degrees C versus - 30 degrees C. The fVIII and vWF recovery in cryoprecipitates does not show differences (464.2 IU fVIII/ml at - 30 degrees C, 446.7 IU fVIII/ml at - 25 degrees C, and 475.8 IU fVIII/ml at - 20 degrees C). The results obtained from this study support that plasma might also be frozen at - 25 degrees C or below without any impact on its quality, and that sporadic and short term deviations, from - 30 degrees C or below up to - 25 degrees C, in the currently required freezing temperature, would not have an effect on the labile factors recovery.

Impaired fibrinolysis as a result of increased plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) levels in plasma is a common finding in patients with deep vein thrombosis (DVT). A 4G/5G polymorphism in the promoter region of the PAI-1 gene has been reported to influence the levels of PAI-1. The 4G allele was found to be associated with higher plasma PAI-1 activity (act), but contradictory results on the incidence of the 4G allele in DVT patients have been reported. The aim of this study was to analyse whether the PAI-1 promoter 4G/5G genotype increases the risk of venous thrombosis in subjects with thrombophilic defects, and to determine the distribution of the PAI-1 4G/5G genotype and its relation to plasma PAI-1 levels in 190 unrelated patients with DVT in comparison with a control group of 152 healthy subjects. No differences between the 4G/5G allele distribution in the DVT group (0.43/0.57) and in the control group (0.42/0.58) were observed. However, the presence of the 4G allele significantly increased the risk of thrombosis in patients with other thrombophilic defects. Significantly higher PAI-1 levels were observed in DVT patients than in the controls. Our results also showed significant differences in the plasma levels of PAI-1 antigen (ag) and PAI-1 act among the 4G/5G genotypes in DVT patients. A multivariate analysis revealed that, in the DVT group, PAI-1 ag levels were influenced by the 4G allele dosage, triglyceride levels and body mass index (BMI). The influence of the 4G allele dosage on PAI-1 levels was independent of the triglyceride levels and BMI. In the control group, no significant correlation between PAI-1 levels and 4G allele dosage was observed. In conclusion, the PAI-1 promoter polymorphism was found to have an influence on PAI-1 levels in DVT patients and on the risk of venous thrombosis in subjects with other genetic thrombophilic defects.

Epidemiological studies suggest that hormone replacement therapy (HRT) decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease in postmenopausal women via several mechanisms, including modifications in the fibrinolytic system and lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] levels. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of the levels and isoforms of Lp(a) on fibrinolytic activity in 91 postmenopausal women in comparison with premenopause and analyze the effect of HRT on those parameters. In postmenopause, an increase in plasma Lp(a) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) levels was found. A significant inverse correlation was observed between Lp(a) or PAI-1 levels and plasmin generation. Plasma samples with low molecular weight (MW) apo(a) isoforms showed higher plasmin inhibition than plasmas with high MW apo(a) isoforms and similar levels of total Lp(a) and PAI-1. HRT induced a significant decrease in Lp(a) and PAI-1 levels and an increase in estradiol levels, as well as an increase in fibrinolytic activity. A significant correlation was found between the percentages of variation in Lp(a) levels and in plasmin generation and between the percentages of variation in PAI-1 levels and in the euglobulin lysis time under HRT. In conclusion, the increase in fibrinolytic activity observed in women under HRT could be explained by two independent mechanisms: (a) the decrease in PAI-1 and (b) the decrease in the inhibition of plasmin generation due to the decrease in Lp(a) levels.

Increased circulating levels of type 1 plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1) have been associated with coronary artery disease (CAD). However, genetic and environmental determinants of PAI-1 expression are only partially understood. The levels of PAI-1 have been found to relate to 4/5 guanosine (4G/5G) polymorphism in the promoter region of the PAI-1 gene. The 4G allele in this polymorphism has been associated with higher levels of plasma PAI-1 activity, but despite the strong correlation between PAI-1 activity and antigen, no association has been found between PAI-1 antigen levels and the PAI-1 promoter 4G/5G genotype. The aim of the present study was to analyze the influence of the PAI-1 promoter 4G/5G genotype on PAI-1 levels in post-menopause women with coronary disease in comparison with healthy women in pre and postmenopausal status, and the influence of this genotype on variations in PAI-1 levels after hormone replacement therapy (HRT). No differences between 4G/5G allele distribution in the groups studied were observed. The group of postmenopausal women with CAD showed significantly increased PAI-1 antigen and activity levels in comparison with the control groups, and the levels of PAI-1 correlated with the 4G/5G genotype. A multivariate analysis revealed that in the CAD group there was a high correlation between 4G allele dosage and PAI-1 antigen levels, which were also influenced by the triglyceride levels but not by estrogen or glucose levels. After hormone replacement therapy the decrease in PAI-1 levels was correlated with the 4G allele dosage. We conclude that in the group of postmenopausal women with CAD the influence of the PAI-1 promoter 4G/5G genotype on PAI-1 levels is more evident than in the control groups, and that the decrease in PAI-1 levels after HRT in CAD women correlates with the 4G allele dosage.

We describe the case of a 39-year-old woman who suffered two iliofemoral venous thromboses, a cerebral ischemic infarct and recurrent fetal loss. Initial studies showed high levels of antiphospholipid antibodies (APAs) and a moderate thrombocytopenia. After her second miscarriage, laboratory diagnosis revealed that the woman was heterozygous for the factor V Leiden mutation and had a functional protein S deficiency as well as anti-protein S and anti-beta 2-glycoprotein I antibodies. The impairment of the protein C pathway at various points could well explain the recurrent thromboses in the patient and supports the role of a disturbed protein C system in the pathophysiology of thrombosis in patients with APAs.

SummaryIncreased circulating levels of type 1 plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1) have been associated with coronary artery disease (CAD). However, genetic and environmental determinants of PAI-1 expression are only partially understood. The levels of PAI-1 have been found to relate to 4/5 guanosine (4G/5G) polymorphism in the promoter region of the PAI-1 gene. The 4G allele in this polymorphism has been associated with higher levels of plasma PAI-1 activity, but despite the strong correlation between PAI-1 activity and antigen, no association has been found between PAI-1 antigen levels and the PAI-1 promoter 4G/5G genotype. The aim of the present study was to analyze the influence of the PAI-1 promoter 4G/5G genotype on PAI-1 levels in post-menopause women with coronary disease in comparison with healthy women in pre and postmenopausal status, and the influence of this genotype on variations in PAI-1 levels after hormone replacement therapy (HRT). No differences between 4G/5G allele distribution in the groups studied were observed. The group of postmenopausal women with CAD showed significantly increased PAI-1 antigen and activity levels in comparison with the control groups, and the levels of PAI-1 correlated with the 4G/5G genotype. A multivariate analysis revealed that in the CAD group there was a high correlation between 4G allele dosage and PAI-1 antigen levels, which were also influenced by the triglyceride levels but not by estrogen or glucose levels. After hormone replacement therapy the decrease in PAI-1 levels was correlated with the 4G allele dosage. We conclude that in the group of postmenopausal women with CAD the influence of the PAI-1 promoter 4G/5G genotype on PAI-1 levels is more evident than in the control groups, and that the decrease in PAI-1 levels after HRT in CAD women correlates with the 4G allele dosage.

SummaryPreeclampsia is a multisystemic obstetric disease of unknown etiology that is commonly associated with fibrin deposition, occlusive lesions in placental vasculature, and intrauterine fetal growth retardation. We previously reported that type 1 plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1) levels are significantly increased in plasma and placenta from pregnant women with preeclampsia compared to normal pregnant women. In the present report we localize the expression of placental PAI-1 in greater detail and compare it with that of tissue factor (TF), a procoagulant molecule, and vitronectin (Vn), a PAI-1 cofactor. We also examine the expression of two cytokines, tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and interleukin-1 (IL-1), in order to begin to define the underlying mechanisms responsible for the elevated levels of PAI-1 and fibrin deposits observed in placenta from preeclampsia. We demonstrate a significant increase in PAI-1, TF and TNFα antigen and PAI-1 and TF mRNA in placentas from preeclamptic patients. PAI-1 mRNA was increased not only in syncytiotrophoblast and infarction areas, but also in fibroblasts and in some endothelial cells of fetal vessels in placentas from preeclamptic patients. However, there was no colocalization between PAI-1, TF, Vn and TNFα in placental villi. The elevated TNFα in the placenta may induce PAI-1 and TF, and thus promote the thrombotic alterations associated with preeclampsia.

The effect of antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) on the action of activated protein C (APC) was examined in 32 patients: 19 with lupus anticoagulant (LA), 6 with anticardiolipin antibodies (aCL), and 7 with LA and aCL. Eighteen patients had a ratio of activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) with APC to APTT without APC (APTT ratio)

SummaryAn increase in plasma plasminogen activator inhibitors (PAIs), fundamentally PAI type 2 (PAI-2), has been described in normal pregnancy probably because the placenta is the main source of the high plasma levels of this protein. Although we have previously described plasmatic alterations of these inhibitors in pregnancies complicated with intrauterine fetal growth retardation (IUGR), no reports have been published about placental PAI-2 mRNA expression. In the present study, the placental PAI-2 expression determined in pregnancies complicated with IUGR and in severe preeclamptic patients was compared with that of normal pregnancies in order to identify the placental cell types expressing PAI-2 and to determine whether the production of PAI-2 is altered in placentas from IUGR. In situ hybridization analyses show that the syncytiotrophoblasts are the cells with the greatest PAI-2 expression in placenta. We report that the significant decrease in plasma and placental PAI-2 levels in IUGR groups is fundamentally due to a diminished expression of PAI-2 mRNA in placenta.

We previously reported significantly elevated levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 (PAI-1) in plasma and placenta from pregnant women with severe pre-eclampsia, and pre-eclampsia is a frequent problem in molar pregnancies. As increases in PAI-1 may contribute to the placental alterations that occur in pre-eclampsia, we have begun to investigate changes in PAI-1 as well as PAI-2 and several other components of the fibrinolytic system in patients with trophoblastic disease. Significant increases in plasma PAI-1 and decreases in plasma PAI-2 levels were observed in molar pregnancies when compared with the levels in normal pregnant women of similar gestational age. PAI-1 antigen levels also were increased, and PAI-2 levels were decreased in placenta from women with molar pregnancies compared with placenta obtained by spontaneous abortion. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed strong positive and specific staining of PAI-1 in trophoblastic epithelium in molar pregnancies and relatively weak staining of PAI-2. No association between the distribution of PAI-1 and vitronectin was found, and no specific signal for tissue type PA, urokinase type PA, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, or interleukin-1 was detected. In situ hybridization revealed an increase in PAI-1 but not PAI-2 mRNAs in placenta from molar pregnancies in comparison with placenta from abortions. These results demonstrate increased PAI-1 protein and mRNA in trophoblastic disease and suggest that localized elevated levels of PAI-1 may contribute to the hemostatic problems associated with this disorder.

Here we summarize the recent progress in research on the role of the fibrinolytic system in reproduction, with a special emphasis on the role of the plasminogen activator inhibitors in fetal development. Trophoblasts produce fibrinolytic proteins that can promote normal implantation and regulate blood flow to the fetus and placenta throughout pregnancy. Normal pregnancy is associated with a hypofibrinolytic state that is fundamentally caused by an increase in plasminogen activator inhibitors types 1 and 2. In pre-eclampsia, a fibrinolytic failure, resulting from an increase in plasma and placental concentrations of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, was observed. The localized elevated concentrations of placenta plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 protein and mRNA observed in pre-eclamptic patients would be expected to foster the deposition of fibrin and thus play a role in the complications associated with this disease. The decreased plasminogen activator inhibitor-2 concentrations in placenta and plasma from intrauterine fetal growth retardation pregnancies and the positive correlation between plasma/placenta plasminogen activator inhibitor-2 concentration and birthweight suggest that this inhibitor could be considered an adequate marker of placental function.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to analyze several fibrinolytic components and coagulation inhibitors in postmenopausal women and to evaluate the effect of hormone replacement therapy. STUDY DESIGN: Several hemostatic parameters were evaluated in 75 postmenopausal women before and after 3 to 4 and 12 months of hormone therapy. RESULTS: An increase in plasma fibrinolytic activity primarily related to a significant increase in tissue-type plasminogen activator and a decrease in plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 was observed in women receiving hormone replacement therapy. A significant decrease in protein S and lipoprotein(a) was detected under therapy. No modifications in tissue-type plasminogen activator/plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and activated protein C/α 1 -antitrypsin complexes, urokinase activity, plasminogen, and antithrombin III were detected. CONCLUSIONS: The increase in fibrinolytic activity and the decrease in lipoprotein(a) levels observed in women receiving hormone replacement therapy could help decrease the risk of coronary disease associated with the postmenopausal state.

Elevated plasma levels of type 1 plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1) have been implicated in mediating the fibrin deposition and occlusive lesions that occur within the placental vasculature in preeclampsia (PE) and intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR). In this report we identify the cells within the normal-appearing villous tissue that are responsible for the local production of PAI-1 in women with PE and IUGR. Levels for another fibrinolytic inhibitor (ie, type 2 plasminogen activator inhibitor [PAI-2]) were determined for comparative purposes. Elevated levels of PAI-1 were detected in placenta extracts from PE/IUGR patients (121 +/- 38 ng/mg, n = 8) when compared with the levels in placenta extracts from normal women (43 +/- 17 ng/mg, n = 10) or women with IUGR but not PE (51 +/- 22 ng/mg, n = 11). Immunohistochemical analysis of paraffin sections showed an increased immunoreactivity for PAI-1 in the placental villous syncytiotrophoblasts from PE/IUGR women compared with the immunostaining of placental samples from the normal or IUGR group. In contrast, antigen levels and immunostaining for PAI-2 were reduced in the placentas harvested from not only the PE/IUGR women (209 +/- 144 ng/mg) but also the IUGR group (169 +/- 106 ng/mg) in comparison with the PAI-2 levels in normal placentas (535 +/- 98 ng/mg). To document that the increased immunoreactivity for PAI-1 in PE/IUGR syncytiotrophoblasts was mediated by an increased production of PAI-1 within these cells, in situ hybridization analysis was performed. A strong positive signal for PAI-1 mRNA in villous syncytiotrophoblasts from PE patients (n = 5) was obtained after 2 weeks of exposure to the NTB2 emulsion in comparison with the weak signal for PAI-1 mRNA that required a 10-week exposure of the normal placenta sections (n = 10). Northern blotting for PAI-1 mRNA showed that both transcripts (ie, 3.2 and 2.3 kb) were elevated in samples of two PE patients in comparison with the PAI-1 mRNA transcripts present in a normal placenta and an IUGR placental sample. These results show increased PAI-1 and mRNA levels in placentas from PE patients and raise the possibility that localized elevated levels of PAI-1 may play a role in the initiation of placental damage, as well as in the thrombotic complications associated with this disease.

Several fibrinolytic parameters were determined in plasma and amniotic fluid from normotensive pregnancies complicated by intrauterine fetal growth retardation (IUGR) and severe preeclamptic (PE) patients with IUGR and compared with data from normal pregnancies. A significant decrease in plasminogen activator type 2 (PAI-2) and urokinase levels in plasma and amniotic fluid was observed in IUGR groups in comparison with normal pregnancy. No significant differences were observed between the control and IUGR groups in relation to the other fibrinolytic parameters, except for plasma PAI type 1 and tissue-type plasminogen activator levels, which were significantly increased in the PE group. A significant positive correlation was observed between birth weight and PAI-2 levels in both plasma and amniotic fluid, but the plasma PAI-2 levels showed a higher correlation. In conclusion, these results suggest that the PAI-2 level measured in plasma is a more adequate marker of placental function than the PAI-2 level measured in amniotic fluid.

Bei der Herstellung von Arzneimitteln aus biologischen Materialen sind immer Risiken gegeben. Besonders bei aus humanem Plasma hergestellten Produkten müssen wegen der Heterogenität des Startmaterials für die Fraktionierung strenge Richtlinien befolgt werden. Diese Arbeit behandelt den Vergleich ebendieser Richtlinien aus Europa und USA und um etwaige Unterschiede festzustellen. Dazu wurden die entsprechenden Richtlinien der European Medicines Agency (EMA) und U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in einer formal wissenschaftlichen Arbeitsweise durch Recherche im Internet erfasst, ausgearbeitet und verglichen. Dabei ergaben die Recherchen, dass jeweils die Gute Herstellungspraxis [1, 2] zu beachten ist, Blutspendeeinrichtungen zugelassen sein müssen und für die Spenderauswahl die Zulassungskriterien, welche sich nur in den Details unterscheiden, beachtet werden müssen [3, 4]. Die Einzelspenden und Plasmapools für die Fraktionierung müssen auf die Infektionsmarker von Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C und HIV getestet werden [5, 6]. Die Kontrollen im Prozess müssen vorab definiert werden, Reprocessing darf nur erfolgen, wenn dies schon prospektiv in der Prozessvalidierung berücksichtigt worden ist und die Stabilität der Produkte während der Haltbarkeitsdauer muss durch Stabilitätsstudien bewiesen sein [1, 7]. Weiters wurde noch ermittelt, dass Faktor VIII (FVIII) Plasmaderivate gegenüber rekombinant hergestellten Proteinen eine geringere Immunogenität beim Patienten hervorruft [8]. Auch zeigte sich, dass die Einführung des Nukleinsäure-Amplifikations-Verfahrens (NAT) eine große Auswirkung auf die sichere und frühere Testung von HIV, HCV und HBV Infektionen hat [9]. Bezüglich der Richtlinien zeigte sich, dass in Europa und USA diese weitgehend vereinheitlicht sind und die Unterschiede nur in den Details liegen. Im Weiteren wäre ein internationaler Vergleich interessant, inwieweit die international gültigen Leitfäden der internationalen Harmonisierungs-Kommission (ICH) umgesetzt worden sind und welche Länder noch Handlungsbedarf zeigen. [1] EudraLex, Volume 4, EU Guidelines for Good Manufacturing Practice for Medicinal Products for Human and Veterinary Use, Annex 14 Manufacture of Medicinal Products Derived from Human Blood or Plasma. Brussels, SANCO/C8/AM/an D(2010) 380358, Revision 1, 30 November 2011 [2] electronic Code Of Federal Regulations, PART 606—Current Good Manufacturing Practice For Blood And Blood Components, eCFR data is current as of June 10, 2016 [3] RICHTLINIE 2002/98/EG DES EUROPÄISCHEN PARLAMENTS UND DES RATES vom 27. Januar 2003 zur Festlegung von Qualitäts- und Sicherheitsstandards für die Gewinnung, Testung, Verarbeitung, Lagerung und Verteilung von menschlichem Blut und Blutbestandteilen und zur Änderung der Richtlinie 2001/83/EG [4] electronic Code Of Federal Regulations, PART 607—Establishment Registration And Product Listing For Manufacturers Of Human Blood And Blood Products, eCFR data is current as of June 10, 2016 [5] Eu.Pharm.8 01/2014:0853 HUMAN PLASMA FOR FRACTIONATION - Plasma humanum ad separationem [6] electronic Code Of Federal Regulations, PART 640—Additional Standards For Human Blood And Blood Products, eCFR data is current as of June 10, 2016 [7] Guidance for Industry: For the Submission of Chemistry, Manufacturing and Controls and Establishment Description Information for Human Plasma-Derived Biological Products, Animal Plasma or Serum-Derived Products - U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER) - February 1999 [8] M.I. Bravo, B. da Rocha-Souto, S. Grancha and J.I. Jorquera: Native plasma-derived FVIII/VWF complex has lower sensitivity to FVIII inhibitors than the combination of isolated FVIII and VWF proteins. Impact of Bethesda assay titration of FVIII inhibitors. Haemophilia 2014, Vol.20, 905-911, DOI: 10.1111/hae.12494 [9] M. Müller et al: Evaluation of two, commercial, multi-dye, nucleic acid amplification technology tests, for HBV/HCV/HIV-1/HIV-2 and B19V/HAV, for screening blood and plasma for further manufacture. VoxSanguinis 2013, Vol.104, 19-29, DOI: 10.1111/j.1423-0410.2012.01635.x The production of biological products includes several risks, especially if they are produced of human plasma. Therefore, strict guidelines have to be followed. This script compares guidelines from the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). It is a formal scientific work, the information was acquired by research of several internet websites. The Results showed that Good Manufacturing Practise [1, 2] has to be followed and the registered blood establishments have to select donors by required acceptance criteria [3, 4]. The single donations and plasma pools for fractionation have to be tested for infection markers of Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C and HIV [5, 6]. In-process-controls have to be defined in advance, reprocessing is allowed if the criteria were laid down prospectively to the process validation and the products stability during shelf life needs to be proven by stability studies [1, 7]. Furthermore, it was determined that plasma-derived Factor VIII (FVIII) induce less immunogenicity than recombinant FVIII proteins. However, it was also shown that the introduction of the nucleic acid amplification technology (NAT) reduced the window period of HIV, HCV and HBV [9]. Regarding the guidelines of Europe and USA, it was found that most of the standards are harmonized, and the differences are just in details. In the future, an international comparison of guidelines would be interesting, to see how far the guidelines of the International Council for Harmonisation (ICH) are already implemented. [1] EudraLex, Volume 4, EU Guidelines for Good Manufacturing Practice for Medicinal Products for Human and Veterinary Use, Annex 14 Manufacture of Medicinal Products Derived from Human Blood or Plasma. Brussels, SANCO/C8/AM/an D(2010) 380358, Revision 1, 30 November 2011 [2] electronic Code Of Federal Regulations, PART 606—Current Good Manufacturing Practice For Blood And Blood Components, eCFR data is current as of June 10, 2016 [3] RICHTLINIE 2002/98/EG DES EUROPÄISCHEN PARLAMENTS UND DES RATES vom 27. Januar 2003 zur Festlegung von Qualitäts- und Sicherheitsstandards für die Gewinnung, Testung, Verarbeitung, Lagerung und Verteilung von menschlichem Blut und Blutbestandteilen und zur Änderung der Richtlinie 2001/83/EG [4] electronic Code Of Federal Regulations, PART 607—Establishment Registration And Product Listing For Manufacturers Of Human Blood And Blood Products, eCFR data is current as of June 10, 2016 [5] Eu.Pharm.8 01/2014:0853 HUMAN PLASMA FOR FRACTIONATION - Plasma humanum ad separationem [6] electronic Code Of Federal Regulations, PART 640—Additional Standards For Human Blood And Blood Products, eCFR data is current as of June 10, 2016 [7] Guidance for Industry: For the Submission of Chemistry, Manufacturing and Controls and Establishment Description Information for Human Plasma-Derived Biological Products, Animal Plasma or Serum-Derived Products - U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER) - February 1999 [8] M.I. Bravo, B. da Rocha-Souto, S. Grancha and J.I. Jorquera: Native plasma-derived FVIII/VWF complex has lower sensitivity to FVIII inhibitors than the combination of isolated FVIII and VWF proteins. Impact of Bethesda assay titration of FVIII inhibitors. Haemophilia 2014, Vol.20, 905-911, DOI: 10.1111/hae.12494 [9] M. Müller et al: Evaluation of two, commercial, multi-dye, nucleic acid amplification technology tests, for HBV/HCV/HIV-1/HIV-2 and B19V/HAV, for screening blood and plasma for further manufacture. VoxSanguinis 2013, Vol.104, 19-29, DOI: 10.1111/j.1423-0410.2012.01635.x vorgelegt von: Patricia Hierzenhofer Masterarbeit Wien, FH Campus Wien 2016