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TAR DNA-binding protein-43 (TDP-43) accumulation is the primary pathology underlying several neurodegenerative diseases. Charting the progression and heterogeneity of TDP-43 accumulation is necessary to better characterize TDP-43 proteinopathies, but current TDP-43 staging systems are heuristic and assume each syndrome is homogeneous. Here, we use data-driven disease progression modelling to derive a fine-grained empirical staging system for the classification and differentiation of frontotemporal lobar degeneration due to TDP-43 (FTLD-TDP, n = 126), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, n = 141) and limbic-predominant age-related TDP-43 encephalopathy neuropathologic change (LATE-NC) with and without Alzheimer’s disease (n = 304). The data-driven staging of ALS and FTLD-TDP complement and extend previously described human-defined staging schema for ALS and behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia. In LATE-NC individuals, progression along data-driven stages was positively associated with age, but negatively associated with age in individuals with FTLD-TDP. Using only regional TDP-43 severity, our data driven model distinguished individuals diagnosed with ALS, FTLD-TDP or LATE-NC with a cross-validated accuracy of 85.9%, with misclassifications associated with mixed pathological diagnosis, age and genetic mutations. Adding age and SuStaIn stage to this model increased accuracy to 92.3%. Our model differentiates LATE-NC from FTLD-TDP, though some overlap was observed between late-stage LATE-NC and early-stage FTLD-TDP. We further tested for the presence of subtypes with distinct regional TDP-43 progression patterns within each diagnostic group, identifying two distinct cortical-predominant and brainstem-predominant subtypes within FTLD-TDP and a further two subcortical-predominant and corticolimbic-predominant subtypes within ALS. The FTLD-TDP subtypes exhibited differing proportions of TDP-43 type, while there was a trend for age differing between ALS subtypes. Interestingly, a negative relationship between age and SuStaIn stage was seen in the brainstem/subcortical-predominant subtype of each proteinopathy. No subtypes were observed for the LATE-NC group, despite aggregating individuals with and without Alzheimer’s disease and a larger sample size for this group. Overall, we provide an empirical pathological TDP-43 staging system for ALS, FTLD-TDP and LATE-NC, which yielded accurate classification. We further demonstrate that there is substantial heterogeneity amongst ALS and FTLD-TDP progression patterns that warrants further investigation in larger cross-cohort studies.

Cortical arealization arises during neurodevelopment from the confluence of molecular gradients representing patterned expression of morphogens and transcription factors. However, how these gradients relate to adult brain function, and whether they are maintained in the adult brain, remains unknown. Here we uncover three axes of topographic variation in gene expression in the adult human brain that specifically capture previously identified rostral-caudal, dorsal-ventral and medial-lateral axes of early developmental patterning. The interaction of these spatiomolecular gradients i) accurately predicts the location of unseen brain tissue samples, ii) delineates known functional territories, and iii) explains the topographical variation of diverse cortical features. The spatiomolecular gradients are distinct from canonical cortical functional hierarchies differentiating primary sensory cortex from association cortex, but radiate in parallel with the axes traversed by local field potentials along the cortex. We replicate all three molecular gradients in three independent human datasets as well as two non-human primate datasets, and find that each gradient shows a distinct developmental trajectory across the lifespan. The gradients are composed of several well known morphogens (e.g., PAX6 and SIX3), and a small set of genes shared across gradients are strongly enriched for multiple diseases. Together, these results provide insight into the developmental sculpting of functionally distinct brain regions, governed by three robust transcriptomic axes embedded within brain parenchyma.

Background Major prevention trials for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) are now focusing on multidomain lifestyle interventions. However, the exact combination of behavioral factors related to AD pathology remains unclear. In 2 cohorts of cognitively unimpaired individuals at risk of AD, we examined which combinations of personality traits, neuropsychiatric symptoms, and cognitive lifestyle (years of education or lifetime cognitive activity) related to the pathological hallmarks of AD, amyloid-β, and tau deposits. Methods A total of 115 older adults with a parental or multiple-sibling family history of sporadic AD (PREVENT-AD [PRe-symptomatic EValuation of Experimental or Novel Treatments for AD] cohort) underwent amyloid and tau positron emission tomography and answered several questionnaires related to behavioral attributes. Separately, we studied 117 mutation carriers from the DIAN (Dominant Inherited Alzheimer Network) study group cohort with amyloid positron emission tomography and behavioral data. Using partial least squares analysis, we identified latent variables relating amyloid or tau pathology with combinations of personality traits, neuropsychiatric symptoms, and cognitive lifestyle. Results In PREVENT-AD, lower neuroticism, neuropsychiatric burden, and higher education were associated with less amyloid deposition (p = .014). Lower neuroticism and neuropsychiatric features, along with higher measures of openness and extraversion, were related to less tau deposition (p = .006). In DIAN, lower neuropsychiatric burden and higher education were also associated with less amyloid (p = .005). The combination of these factors accounted for up to 14% of AD pathology. Conclusions In the preclinical phase of both sporadic and autosomal dominant AD, multiple behavioral features were associated with AD pathology. These results may suggest potential pathways by which multidomain interventions might help delay AD onset or progression.

Regulation of gene expression drives protein interactions that govern synaptic wiring and neuronal activity. The resulting coordinated activity among neuronal populations supports complex psychological processes, yet how gene expression shapes cognition and emotion remains unknown. Here, we directly bridge the microscale and macroscale by mapping gene expression patterns to functional activation patterns across the cortical sheet. Applying unsupervised learning to the Allen Human Brain Atlas and Neurosynth databases, we identify a ventromedial-dorsolateral gradient of gene assemblies that separate affective and perceptual domains. This topographic molecular-psychological signature reflects the hierarchical organization of the neocortex, including systematic variations in cell type, myeloarchitecture, laminar differentiation and intrinsic network affiliation. In addition, this molecular-psychological signature strengthens over neurodevelopment and can be replicated in two independent repositories. Collectively, our results reveal spatially covarying transcriptomic and cognitive architectures, highlighting the influence that molecular mechanisms exert on psychological processes.

Over the past few decades, neuroimaging has become a ubiquitous tool in basic research and clinical studies of the human brain. However, no reference standards currently exist to quantify individual differences in neuroimaging metrics over time, in contrast to growth charts for anthropometric traits such as height and weight1. Here we assemble an interactive open resource to benchmark brain morphology derived from any current or future sample of MRI data ( http://www.brainchart.io/ ). With the goal of basing these reference charts on the largest and most inclusive dataset available, acknowledging limitations due to known biases of MRI studies relative to the diversity of the global population, we aggregated 123,984 MRI scans, across more than 100 primary studies, from 101,457 human participants between 115 days post-conception to 100 years of age. MRI metrics were quantified by centile scores, relative to non-linear trajectories2 of brain structural changes, and rates of change, over the lifespan. Brain charts identified previously unreported neurodevelopmental milestones3, showed high stability of individuals across longitudinal assessments, and demonstrated robustness to technical and methodological differences between primary studies. Centile scores showed increased heritability compared with non-centiled MRI phenotypes, and provided a standardized measure of atypical brain structure that revealed patterns of neuroanatomical variation across neurological and psychiatric disorders. In summary, brain charts are an essential step towards robust quantification of individual variation benchmarked to normative trajectories in multiple, commonly used neuroimaging phenotypes., R.A.I.B. was supported by a British Academy Postdoctoral fellowship and by the Autism Research Trust. J. Seidlitz was supported by NIMH T32MH019112-29 and K08MH120564. S.R.W. was funded by UKRI Medical Research Council MC_UU_00002/2 and was supported by the NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre (BRC-1215-20014). E.T.B. was supported by an NIHR Senior Investigator award and the Wellcome Trust collaborative award for the Neuroscience in Psychiatry Network. A.F.A.-B. was supported by NIMH K08MH120564. Data were curated and analysed using a computational facility funded by an MRC research infrastructure award (MR/M009041/1) to the School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge and supported by the mental health theme of the NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre.

The functional organization of the hippocampus is distributed as a gradient along its longitudinal axis that explains its differential interaction with diverse brain systems. We show that the location of human tissue samples extracted along the longitudinal axis of the adult human hippocampus can be predicted within 2mm using the expression pattern of less than 100 genes. Futhermore, this model generalizes to an external set of tissue samples from prenatal human hippocampi. We examine variation in this specific gene expression pattern across the whole brain, finding a distinct anterioventral-posteriodorsal gradient. We find frontal and anterior temporal regions involved in social and motivational behaviors, and more functionally connected to the anterior hippocampus, to be clearly differentiated from posterior parieto-occipital regions involved in visuospatial cognition and more functionally connected to the posterior hippocampus. These findings place the human hippocampus at the interface of two major brain systems defined by a single molecular gradient., The human hippocampus plays a role in many different cognitive systems. Here the authors find that a single pattern of brain gene expression can predict how different parts of the hippocampus interact with the rest of the brain.

Numerous brain disorders demonstrate structural brain abnormalities, which are thought to arise from molecular perturbations or connectome miswiring. The unique and shared contributions of these molecular and connectomic vulnerabilities to brain disorders remain unknown, and has yet to be studied in a single multi-disorder framework. Using MRI morphometry from the ENIGMA consortium, we construct maps of cortical abnormalities for thirteen neurodevelopmental, neurological, and psychiatric disorders from N = 21 000 patients and N = 26 000 controls, collected using a harmonized processing protocol. We systematically compare cortical maps to multiple micro-architectural measures, including gene expression, neurotransmitter density, metabolism, and myelination (molecular vulnerability), as well as global connectomic measures including number of connections, centrality, and connection diversity (connectomic vulnerability). We find that regional molecular vulnerability and macroscale brain network architecture interact to drive the spatial patterning of cortical abnormalities in multiple disorders. Local attributes, particularly neurotransmitter receptor profiles, constitute the best predictors of both disorder-specific cortical morphology and cross-disorder similarity. Finally, we find that cross-disorder abnormalities are consistently subtended by a small subset of network epicentres in bilateral sensory-motor, medial temporal lobe, precuneus, and superior parietal cortex. Collectively, our results highlight how local biological attributes and global connectivity jointly shape cross-disorder cortical abnormalities.

This cohort study describes longitudinal tau positron emission tomography findings using [18F]RO948 across the different clinical stages of Alzheimer disease., Key Points Question Which biomarkers best predict longitudinal tau accumulation at different clinical stages of Alzheimer disease? Findings In this cohort study of 343 participants including amyloid-β–positive individuals who were cognitively unimpaired or had mild cognitive impairment, the largest annual increase in [18F]RO948 tau positron emission tomography (PET) was seen across the entorhinal cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala and in temporal cortical regions, respectively. In a power analysis, plasma phosphorylated tau217 with tau PET at baseline in stage I and II, respectively, resulted in sample size reductions. Meaning In trials using tau PET as a main outcome, plasma phosphorylated tau217 with tau PET may prove optimal for enrichment in both preclinical and prodromal Alzheimer disease., Importance There is currently no consensus as to which biomarkers best predict longitudinal tau accumulation at different clinical stages of Alzheimer disease (AD). Objective To describe longitudinal [18F]RO948 tau positron emission tomography (PET) findings across the clinical continuum of AD and determine which biomarker combinations showed the strongest associations with longitudinal tau PET and best optimized clinical trial enrichment. Design, Setting, and Participants This longitudinal cohort study consecutively enrolled amyloid-β (Aβ)–negative cognitively unimpaired (CU) participants, Aβ-positive CU individuals, Aβ-positive individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and individuals with AD dementia between September 2017 and November 2020 from the Swedish BioFINDER-2 (discovery cohort) and BioFINDER-1 (validation cohort) studies. Exposures Baseline plasma and cerebrospinal fluid Aβ42/Aβ40, tau phosphorylated at threonine-217 (p-tau217), p-tau181 and neurofilament light, magnetic resonance imaging, amyloid PET ([18F]flutemetamol), and tau PET ([18F]RO948 in the BioFINDER-2 study; [18F]flortaucipir in the BioFINDER-1 study). Main Outcomes and Measures Baseline tau PET standardized uptake value ratio (SUVR) and annual percent change in tau PET SUVR across regions of interest derived using a data-driven approach combining clustering and event-based modeling. Regression models were used to examine associations between individual biomarkers and longitudinal tau PET and to identify which combinations best predicted longitudinal tau PET. These combinations were then entered in a power analysis to examine how their use as an enrichment strategy would affect sample size in a simulated clinical trial. Results Of 343 participants, the mean (SD) age was 72.56 (7.24) years, and 157 (51.1%) were female. The clustering/event-based modeling–based approach identified 5 regions of interest (stages). In Aβ-positive CU individuals, the largest annual increase in tau PET SUVR was seen in stage I (entorhinal cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala; 4.04% [95% CI, 2.67%-5.32%]). In Aβ-positive individuals with MCI and with AD dementia, the greatest increases were seen in stages II (temporal cortical regions; 4.45% [95% CI, 3.41%-5.49%]) and IV (certain frontal regions; 5.22% [95% CI, 3.95%-6.49%]), respectively. In Aβ-negative CU individuals and those with MCI, modest change was seen in stage I (1.38% [95% CI, 0.78%-1.99%] and 1.80% [95% CI, 0.76%-2.84%], respectively). When looking at individual predictors and longitudinal tau PET in the stages that showed most change, plasma p-tau217 (R2 = 0.27, P

The spatial layout of large-scale functional brain networks differs between individuals and is particularly variable in association cortex that has been implicated in a broad range of psychiatric disorders. However, it remains unknown whether this variation in functional topography is related to major dimensions of psychopathology in youth. Capitalizing on a large sample with 27-minutes of high-quality functional MRI data (n=790, ages 8-23 years) and advances in machine learning, we examined associations between functional topography and four correlated dimensions of psychopathology (fear, psychosis, externalizing, anxious-misery) as well as an overall psychopathology factor. We found that functional topography significantly predicted individual differences in dimensions of psychopathology, driven mainly by robust associations between topography and overall psychopathology. Reduced cortical representations of association networks were among the most important features of the model. Our results emphasize the value of considering systematic differences in functional neuroanatomy for personalized diagnostics and therapeutics in psychiatry.

Although several studies have shown decreased cerebral blood flow (CBF) in Alzheimers disease (AD), the role of hypoperfusion in the disease pathogenesis remains unclear. Combining arterial spin labeling MRI, positron emission tomography, and biomarkers of cerebrospinal fluid, we investigated the associations between CBF and the key mechanisms in AD including amyloid-{beta} (A{beta}) and tau pathology, synaptic dysfunction and axonal degeneration. Further, we applied a disease progression modeling to characterize the temporal sequence of different AD biomarkers. Lower perfusion was observed in the temporo-occipito-parietal regions in the A{beta}-positive cognitively impaired compared to both the A{beta}-positive and A{beta}-negative cognitively unimpaired individuals. In participants along the AD spectrum (those with A{beta} pathology regardless of their cognitive status), CBF was inversely associated with tau and synaptic dysfunction, but not A{beta}, in similar cortical regions. Moreover, the disease progression modeling revealed that CBF disruption followed the abnormality of biomarkers of A{beta}, tau and brain atrophy. These findings indicate that tau tangles and synaptic degeneration are more closely connected with CBF changes rather than A{beta} pathology. This supports the notion that hypoperfusion is not an early event associated with the build-up of A{beta} during the preclinical phase of AD.

Amyloid-beta (Aβ) deposition is one of the hallmark pathologies in both sporadic Alzheimer’s disease (sAD) and autosomal dominant Alzheimer’s disease (ADAD), the latter of which is caused by mutations in genes involved in Aβ processing. Despite Aβ deposition being a centerpiece to both sAD and ADAD, some differences between these AD subtypes have been observed with respect to the spatial pattern of Aβ. Previous work has shown that the spatial pattern of Aβ in individuals spanning the sAD spectrum can be reproduced with high accuracy using an epidemic spreading model (ESM), which simulates the diffusion of Aβ across neuronal connections and is constrained by individual rates of Aβ production and clearance. However, it has not been investigated whether Aβ deposition in the rarer ADAD can be modeled in the same way, and if so, how congruent the spreading patterns of Aβ across sAD and ADAD are. We leverage the ESM as a data-driven approach to probe individual-level variation in the spreading patterns of Aβ across three different large-scale imaging datasets (2 SAD, 1 ADAD). We applied the ESM separately to the Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging initiative (N=737), the Open Access Series of Imaging Studies (N=510), and the Dominantly Inherited Alzheimer’s Network (N=249), the latter two of which were processed using an identical pipeline. We assessed inter- and intra-individual model performance in each dataset separately, and further identified the most likely epicenter of Aβ spread for each individual. Using epicenters defined in previous work in sAD, the ESM provided moderate prediction of the regional pattern of Aβ deposition across all three datasets. We further find that, while the most likely epicenter for most Aβ-positive subjects overlaps with the default mode network, 13% of ADAD individuals were best characterized by a striatal origin of Aβ spread. These subjects were also distinguished by being younger than ADAD subjects with a DMN Aβ origin, despite having a similar estimated age of symptom onset. Together, our results suggest that most ADAD patients express Aβ spreading patters similar to those of sAD, but that there may be a subset of ADAD patients with a separate, striatal phenotype.

Resting-state functional connectivity is suggested to be cross-sectionally associated with both vascular burden and Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. However, evidence is lacking regarding longitudinal changes in functional connectivity. This study includes 247 cognitively unimpaired individuals with a family history of sporadic AD (185 women/ 62 men; mean [SD] age of 63 [5.3] years). Plasma total-, HDL-, and LDL-cholesterol and systolic and diastolic blood pressure were measured at baseline. Global (whole-brain) brain functional connectivity and connectivity from canonical functional networks were computed from resting-state functional MRI obtained at baseline and ~3.5 years of annual follow-ups, using a predefined functional parcellation. A subsample underwent Aβ- and tau-PET (n=91). Linear mixed-effects models demonstrated that global functional connectivity increased over time across the entire sample. In contrast, higher total-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol levels were associated with greater reduction of functional connectivity in the default-mode network over time. In addition, higher diastolic blood pressure was associated with global functional connectivity reduction. The associations were similar when the analyses were repeated using two other functional brain parcellations. Aβ and tau deposition in the brain were not associated with changes in functional connectivity over time in the subsample. These findings provide evidence that vascular burden is associated with a decrease in functional connectivity over time in older adults with elevated risk for AD. Future studies are needed to determine if the impact of vascular risk factors on functional brain changes precede the impact of AD pathology on functional brain changes.

Most cancer deaths result from progression of therapy resistant disease, yet our understanding of this phenotype is limited. Cancer therapies generate stress signals that act upon mitochondria to initiate apoptotic programs. We isolated mitochondria from neuroblastoma cell lines obtained from children at diagnosis and after relapse following failed therapy, and profiled responses to tBid and Bim, death effectors activated by therapeutic stress. Mitochondria from post-relapse models had markedly attenuated cytochrome c release (surrogate for apoptotic commitment) in comparison with patient-matched diagnostic models. Mitochondrial DNA content, size, and shape did not differ consistently. However, we used electron microscopy to identify reduced endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria contacts (ERMCs) as correlated with therapy resistance. ERMCs form microdomains for the transfer of Ca2+ to mitochondria. We confirmed reduced Ca2+ transfer in resistant cells, with restoration by re-opposing ERMCs via genetically-encoded linkers. However, reduced Ca2+ transfer was not present in all ERMC-reduced cancers with therapy resistance, supporting Ca2+-independent mechanisms. Genetically or biochemically reducing ERMCs in therapy sensitive tumors phenocopied resistance, validating these inter-organelle contacts as physiologic regulators of apoptosis. Our work confirms the importance of ERMCs in stress signaling and provides a previously unrecognized mechanism for cancer cell resistance that is not exclusive to other contributors.

Mapping structural white matter connectivity is a challenge, with many barriers to accurate representation. Here, we assessed the replicability and reliability of two connectome-generating methods, voxel- or surface-based, using test-retest analyses, fingerprinting and age prediction. The two connectomic methods are initiated by the same state-of-the-art dMRI processing pipeline before diverging at the tractography and connectome-generating steps using either voxels or surfaces. While both methods performed very well across all analyses, voxel-based connectomes performed marginally better than surface-based connectomes. Notably, structural connectomes derived from either method demonstrate reliably accurate representations of both individuals and their chronological age, comparable to similar analyses employing multi-modal features. The difference in methodological performance could be attributed to a number of method-specific features but ultimately show that cutting-edge tractography with robust dMRI processing produces reliable white matter connectivity measures.

ObjectiveTo determine whether atrophy relates to phenotypical variants of posterior cortical atrophy (PCA) recently proposed in clinical criteria (i.e., dorsal, ventral, dominant-parietal, and caudal) we assessed associations between latent atrophy factors and cognition.MethodsWe employed a data-driven Bayesian modeling framework based on latent Dirichlet allocation to identify latent atrophy factors in a multicenter cohort of 119 individuals with PCA (age 64 ± 7 years, 38% male, Mini-Mental State Examination 21 ± 5, 71% β-amyloid positive, 29% β-amyloid status unknown). The model uses standardized gray matter density images as input (adjusted for age, sex, intracranial volume, MRI scanner field strength, and whole-brain gray matter volume) and provides voxelwise probabilistic maps for a predetermined number of atrophy factors, allowing every individual to express each factor to a degree without a priori classification. Individual factor expressions were correlated to 4 PCA-specific cognitive domains (object perception, space perception, nonvisual/parietal functions, and primary visual processing) using general linear models.ResultsThe model revealed 4 distinct yet partially overlapping atrophy factors: right-dorsal, right-ventral, left-ventral, and limbic. We found that object perception and primary visual processing were associated with atrophy that predominantly reflects the right-ventral factor. Furthermore, space perception was associated with atrophy that predominantly represents the right-dorsal and right-ventral factors. However, individual participant profiles revealed that the large majority expressed multiple atrophy factors and had mixed clinical profiles with impairments across multiple domains, rather than displaying a discrete clinical–radiologic phenotype.ConclusionOur results indicate that specific brain behavior networks are vulnerable in PCA, but most individuals display a constellation of affected brain regions and symptoms, indicating that classification into 4 mutually exclusive variants is unlikely to be clinically useful.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by the progressive spread of tau pathology throughout the cerebral cortex. The pattern of spread is thought to be fairly consistent across individuals, though more recent work has demonstrated substantial variability in the AD population that is often associated with distinct clinical phenotypes. Still, a systematic, unbiased, wholebrain characterization of spatiotemporal variation in tau deposition in AD is lacking. We analyzed 1612 tau-PET scans and applied to this sample a disease progression modeling framework designed to identify spatiotemporal trajectories of pathological progression. We identified four distinct trajectories of tau progression, ranging in prevalence from 18–33%, with no one progession predominating. We replicated previously described limbic-predominant and medial temporal lobe-sparing variants, while also discovering posterior and lateral temporal subtypes resembling atypical clinical variants of AD. These “subtypes” were stable during longitudinal follow-up, and could be replicated in a separate sample using a different radiotracer. The subtypes presented with distinct demographic and cognitive profiles and differing longitudinal outcomes, however, no “typical” variant predominated. Across all subtypes, younger age was related to worse cognition and more rapid tau accumulation. Additionally, network diffusion models implicated that pathology originates and spreads through distinct corticolimbic in the different subtypes. Together, our results suggest variation in tau pathology is common and systematic, perhaps warranting a re-examination of the notion of “typical AD”, and a revisiting of tau pathological staging.

Regulation of gene expression drives protein interactions that govern synaptic wiring and neuronal activity. The resulting coordinated activity among neuronal populations supports complex psychological processes, yet how gene expression shapes cognition and emotion remains unknown. Here, we directly bridge the microscale and macroscale by mapping gene expression patterns to functional activation patterns across the cortical sheet. Applying unsupervised learning to the Allen Human Brain Atlas and Neurosynth databases, we identify a ventromedial-dorsolateral gradient of gene assemblies that separate affective and perceptual domains. This topographic molecular-psychological signature reflects the hierarchical organization of the neocortex, including systematic variations in cell type, myeloarchitecture, laminar differentiation and intrinsic network affiliation. In addition, this molecular-psychological signature strengthens over neurodevelopment and can be replicated in two independent repositories. Collectively, our results reveal spatially covarying transcriptomic and cognitive architectures, highlighting the influence that molecular mechanisms exert on psychological processes.

Regulation of gene expression drives protein interactions that govern synaptic wiring and neuronal activity. The resulting coordinated activity among neuronal populations supports complex psychological processes, yet how gene expression shapes cognition and emotion remains unknown. Here we directly bridge the microscale and macroscale by mapping gene expression patterns to functional activation patterns across the cortical sheet. Applying unsupervised learning to the Allen Human Brain Atlas and Neurosynth databases, we identify a ventromedial-dorsolateral gradient of gene assemblies that separate affective and cognitive domains. This topographic molecular-psychological signature reflects the hierarchical organization of the neocortex, including systematic variations in cell type, myeloarchitecture, laminar differentiation, and intrinsic network affiliation. In addition, this molecular-psychological signature is related to individual differences in cognitive performance, strengthens over neurodevelopment, and can be replicated in two independent repositories. Collectively, our results reveal spatially covarying transcriptomic and cognitive architectures, highlighting the influence that molecular mechanisms exert on psychological processes.

IntroductionCross-sectional studies suggest that cardiovascular risk factors and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) biomarkers are associated with abnormal brain resting-state functional connectivity in aging and AD; however, evidence is missing regarding longitudinal changes in functional connectivity. In this study, we investigate whether cholesterol levels and blood pressure are associated with changes in functional connectivity over time in asymptomatic individuals at risk for AD. The analyses were repeated with cerebral β-amyloid (Aβ) andtaudeposition in a subset of the participants.MethodsThe study sample included 247 cognitively unimpaired individuals (185 women/ 62 men; mean [SD] age of 63 [5.3] years) of the PREVENT-AD cohort with a parental or multiple-sibling history of sporadic AD. Plasma total-, HDL-, and LDL-cholesterol and systolic and diastolic blood pressure were measured at baseline. Global brain functional connectivity, and connectivity from canonical functional networks, were computed from resting-state functional MRI obtained at baseline and up to four years of annual follow-ups, using a predefined functional parcellation. A subset of participants underwenttau-PET ([18F]Flortaucipir) and Aβ-PET ([18F]NAV4694). Vascular and AD measures were examined as predictors of brain functional connectivity changes in linear mixed-effects models.ResultsHigher total-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol levels were associated with greater reduction of functional connectivity in the default-mode network over time. In addition, while overall whole-brain functional connectivity showed an increase over time across the entire sample higher diastolic blood pressure was associated with reduction in whole-brain functional connectivity. The associations were similar when the analyses were repeated using two other functional brain parcellations. The findings with total-cholesterol and diastolic blood pressure were also similar but attenuated when performed in a subsample of participants with PET (n=91), whereas AD biomarkers were not associated with changes in functional connectivity over time in this subsample.ConclusionThese findings provide evidence that vascular burden is associated with a decrease in brain functional connectivity over time in older adults with elevated risk for AD. The impact of vascular risk factors on functional brain changes might precede AD pathology-related changes.

Age being the main risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease, it is particularly challenging to disentangle structural changes related to normal brain ageing from those specific to Alzheimer’s disease. Most studies aiming to make this distinction focused on older adults only and on a priori anatomical regions. Drawing on a large, multi-cohort dataset ranging from young adults (n = 468; age range 18–35 years), to older adults with intact cognition (n = 431; age range 55–90 years) and with Alzheimer’s disease (n = 50 with late mild cognitive impairment and 71 with Alzheimer’s dementia, age range 56–88 years), we investigated grey matter organization and volume differences in ageing and Alzheimer’s disease. Using independent component analysis on all participants’ structural MRI, we first derived morphometric networks and extracted grey matter volume in each network. We also derived a measure of whole-brain grey matter pattern organization by correlating grey matter volume in all networks across all participants from the same cohort. We used logistic regressions and receiver operating characteristic analyses to evaluate how well grey matter volume in each network and whole-brain pattern could discriminate between ageing and Alzheimer’s disease. Because increased heterogeneity is often reported as one of the main features characterizing brain ageing, we also evaluated interindividual heterogeneity within morphometric networks and across the whole-brain organization in ageing and Alzheimer’s disease. Finally, to investigate the clinical validity of the different grey matter features, we evaluated whether grey matter volume or whole-brain pattern was related to clinical progression in cognitively normal older adults. Ageing and Alzheimer’s disease contributed additive effects on grey matter volume in nearly all networks, except frontal lobe networks, where differences in grey matter were more specific to ageing. While no networks specifically discriminated Alzheimer’s disease from ageing, heterogeneity in grey matter volumes across morphometric networks and in the whole-brain grey matter pattern characterized individuals with cognitive impairments. Preservation of the whole-brain grey matter pattern was also related to lower risk of developing cognitive impairment, more so than grey matter volume. These results suggest both ageing and Alzheimer’s disease involve widespread atrophy, but that the clinical expression of Alzheimer’s disease is uniquely associated with disruption of morphometric organization.

Previous positron emission tomography (PET) studies have quantified filamentous tau pathology using regions‐of‐interest (ROIs) based on observations of the topographical distribution of neurofibrillary tangles in post‐mortem tissue. However, such approaches may not take full advantage of information contained in neuroimaging data. The present study employs an unsupervised data‐driven method to identify spatial patterns of tau‐PET distribution, and to compare these patterns to previously published “pathology‐driven” ROIs. Tau‐PET patterns were identified from a discovery sample comprised of 123 normal controls and patients with mild cognitive impairment or Alzheimer's disease (AD) dementia from the Swedish BioFINDER cohort, who underwent [(18)F]AV1451 PET scanning. Associations with cognition were tested in a separate sample of 90 individuals from ADNI. BioFINDER [(18)F]AV1451 images were entered into a robust voxelwise stable clustering algorithm, which resulted in five clusters. Mean [(18)F]AV1451 uptake in the data‐driven clusters, and in 35 previously published pathology‐driven ROIs, was extracted from ADNI [(18)F]AV1451 scans. We performed linear models comparing [(18)F]AV1451 signal across all 40 ROIs to tests of global cognition and episodic memory, adjusting for age, sex, and education. Two data‐driven ROIs consistently demonstrated the strongest or near‐strongest effect sizes across all cognitive tests. Inputting all regions plus demographics into a feature selection routine resulted in selection of two ROIs (one data‐driven, one pathology‐driven) and education, which together explained 28% of the variance of a global cognitive composite score. Our findings suggest that [(18)F]AV1451‐PET data naturally clusters into spatial patterns that are biologically meaningful and that may offer advantages as clinical tools.

Estimated years to symptom onset (EYO) is a measurement developed to track disease progression in patients with genetic Alzheimer’s disease. Vogel et al. apply this concept to individuals with a parental history of sporadic Alzheimer’s disease. A neuroimaging-based model successfully predicts EYO and years to clinical conversion in unseen data. See Tijms and Visser (doi:10.1093/brain/awy113) for a scientific commentary on this article., See Tijms and Visser (doi:10.1093/brain/awy113) for a scientific commentary on this article. Alzheimer’s disease is preceded by a lengthy ‘preclinical’ stage spanning many years, during which subtle brain changes occur in the absence of overt cognitive symptoms. Predicting when the onset of disease symptoms will occur is an unsolved challenge in individuals with sporadic Alzheimer’s disease. In individuals with autosomal dominant genetic Alzheimer’s disease, the age of symptom onset is similar across generations, allowing the prediction of individual onset times with some accuracy. We extend this concept to persons with a parental history of sporadic Alzheimer’s disease to test whether an individual’s symptom onset age can be informed by the onset age of their affected parent, and whether this estimated onset age can be predicted using only MRI. Structural and functional MRIs were acquired from 255 ageing cognitively healthy subjects with a parental history of sporadic Alzheimer’s disease from the PREVENT-AD cohort. Years to estimated symptom onset was calculated as participant age minus age of parental symptom onset. Grey matter volume was extracted from T1-weighted images and whole-brain resting state functional connectivity was evaluated using degree count. Both modalities were summarized using a 444-region cortical-subcortical atlas. The entire sample was divided into training (n = 138) and testing (n = 68) sets. Within the training set, individuals closer to or beyond their parent’s symptom onset demonstrated reduced grey matter volume and altered functional connectivity, specifically in regions known to be vulnerable in Alzheimer’s disease. Machine learning was used to identify a weighted set of imaging features trained to predict years to estimated symptom onset. This feature set alone significantly predicted years to estimated symptom onset in the unseen testing data. This model, using only neuroimaging features, significantly outperformed a similar model instead trained with cognitive, genetic, imaging and demographic features used in a traditional clinical setting. We next tested if these brain properties could be generalized to predict time to clinical progression in a subgroup of 26 individuals from the Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative, who eventually converted either to mild cognitive impairment or to Alzheimer’s dementia. The feature set trained on years to estimated symptom onset in the PREVENT-AD predicted variance in time to clinical conversion in this separate longitudinal dataset. Adjusting for participant age did not impact any of the results. These findings demonstrate that years to estimated symptom onset or similar measures can be predicted from brain features and may help estimate presymptomatic disease progression in at-risk individuals.

Posterior cortical atrophy is a clinical-radiological syndrome characterized by visual processing deficits and atrophy in posterior parts of the brain, most often caused by Alzheimer’s disease pathology. Recent consensus criteria describe four distinct phenotypical variants of posterior cortical atrophy defined by clinical and radiological features; i) object perception/occipitotemporal (ventral), ii) space perception/temporoparietal (dorsal), iii) non-visual/dominant parietal and iv) primary visual (caudal). We employed a data-driven approach to identify atrophy factors related to these proposed variants in a multi-center cohort of 119 individuals with posterior cortical atrophy (age: 64 SD 7, 38% male, MMSE: 21 SD 5, 71% amyloid-β positive, 29% amyloid-β status unknown). A Bayesian modelling framework based on latent Dirichlet allocation was used to compute four latent atrophy factors in accordance with the four proposed variants. The model uses standardized gray matter density images as input (adjusted for age, sex, intracranial volume, field strength and whole-brain gray matter volume) and provides voxelwise probabilistic maps for all atrophy factors, allowing every individual to express each factor to a degree without a priori classification. The model revealed four distinct yet partially overlapping atrophy factors; right-dorsal, right-ventral, left-ventral, and limbic. Individual participant profiles revealed that the vast majority of participants expressed multiple factors, rather than predominantly expressing a single factor. To assess the relationship between atrophy factors and cognition, neuropsychological test scores covering four posterior cortical atrophy-specific cognitive domains were assessed (object perception, space perception, non-visual parietal functions and primary visual processing) and we used general linear models to examine the association between atrophy factor expression and cognition. We found that object perception and primary visual processing were associated with atrophy that predominantly reflects the right-ventral factor. Furthermore, space perception was associated with atrophy that predominantly represents the right-ventral and right-dorsal factors. Similar to the atrophy factors, most participants had mixed clinical profiles with impairments across multiple domains. However, when selecting four participants with an isolated impairment, we observed atrophy patterns and factor expressions that were largely in accordance with the hypothesized variants. Taken together, our results indicate that variants of posterior cortical atrophy exist but these constitute phenotypical extremes and most individuals fall along a broad clinical-radiological spectrum, indicating that classification into four mutually exclusive variants is unlikely to be clinically useful.

The functional organization of the hippocampus is distributed as a gradient along its longitudinal axis that explains its differential interaction with diverse brain systems. We show that the location of human tissue samples extracted along the longitudinal axis of the hippocampus can be predicted within 2mm using the expression pattern of less than 100 genes. When variation in this specific gene expression pattern was observed across the whole brain, a distinct anterioventral-posteriodorsal gradient was observed. Frontal, anterior temporal and brainstem regions involved in social and motivational behaviors, selectively vulnerable to frontotemporal dementia and more functionally connected to the anterior hippocampus could be clearly differentiated from posterior parieto-occipital and cerebellar regions involved in spatial cognition, selectively vulnerable to Alzheimers disease, and more functionally connected to the posterior hippocampus. These findings place the human hippocampus at the interface of two major brain systems defined by a single distinct molecular gradient. (148/150)

Tau is one of the two pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease, and bears a much closer relationship to local neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment than the other hallmark, β-amyloid. Cell and rodent models have shown evidence that tau spreads from cell to cell through anatomical neuronal connections, and that this process is facilitated by the presence of β-amyloid. We test this hypothesis in humans by using an epidemic spreading model (ESM) to simulate the spread of tau over human neuronal connections, and we compare the simulated pattern of progression to the observed pattern measured in the brains of 312 individuals on the Alzheimer’s disease spectrum, using PET. Fitting our model, we found that the majority of variance in the overall pattern of tau progression could be explained by diffusion of an agent through the human connectome, measured using either functional connectivity or diffusion tractography. These models far exceeded chance, and outperformed models testing the extracellular spread of tau over Euclidian space. Surprisingly, the ESM predicted the spatial patterns of tau irrespective of whether subjects demonstrated evidence for brain β-amyloid. In addition, in β-amyloid-positive subjects only, regions with greater amyloid burden showed greater tau than predicted by connectivity patterns, suggesting a role of amyloid in accelerating the spread of tau in certain isocortical regions. Altogether, our results provide strong evidence that tau spreads through neuronal communication pathways even in normal aging, and that this process is accelerated by the presence of brain β-amyloid.

The spatial layout of large-scale functional brain networks differs between individuals and is particularly variable in the association cortex, implicated in a broad range of psychiatric disorders. However, it remains unknown whether this variation in functional topography is related to major dimensions of psychopathology in youth.The authors studied 790 youths ages 8 to 23 years who had 27 minutes of high-quality functional magnetic resonance imaging data as part of the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort. Four correlated dimensions were estimated using a confirmatory correlated traits factor analysis on 112 item-level clinical symptoms, and one overall psychopathology factor with 4 orthogonal dimensions were extracted using a confirmatory factor analysis. Spatially regularized nonnegative matrix factorization was used to identify 17 individual-specific functional networks for each participant. Partial least square regression with split-half cross-validation was conducted to evaluate to what extent the topography of personalized functional networks encodes major dimensions of psychopathology.Personalized functional network topography significantly predicted unseen individuals' major dimensions of psychopathology, including fear, psychosis, externalizing, and anxious-misery. Reduced representation of association networks was among the most important features for the prediction of all 4 dimensions. Further analysis revealed that personalized functional network topography predicted overall psychopathology (r = 0.16, permutation testing p.001), which drove prediction of the 4 correlated dimensions.These results suggest that individual differences in functional network topography in association networks is related to overall psychopathology in youth. Such results underscore the importance of considering functional neuroanatomy for personalized diagnostics and therapeutics in psychiatry.

Prior work has shown that there is substantial interindividual variation in the spatial distribution of functional networks across the cerebral cortex, orfunctional topography. However, it remains unknown whether there are sex differences in the topography of individualized networks in youth. Here we leveraged an advanced machine learning method (sparsity-regularized nonnegative matrix factorization) to define individualized functional networks in 693 youth (ages 8-23 years) who underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging as part of the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort. Multivariate pattern analysis using support vector machines classified participant sex based on functional topography with 83% accuracy (pSIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTWe identify normative developmental sex differences in the functional topography of personalized association networks including the ventral attention network and default mode network. Furthermore, chromosomal enrichment analyses revealed that sex differences in multivariate patterns of functional topography were spatially coupled to the expression of X-linked genes as well as astrocytic and excitatory neuronal cell-type signatures. These results highlight the role of sex as a biological variable in shaping functional brain development in youth.

© 2016 Elsevier Inc.. Single lifestyle factors affect brain biomarkers and cognition. Here, we addressed the covariance of various lifestyle elements and investigated their impact on positron emission tomography-based β-amyloid (Aβ), hippocampal volume, and cognitive function in aged controls. Lower Aβ burden was associated with a lifestyle comprising high cognitive engagement and low vascular risk, particularly in apolipoprotein E ε4 carriers. Although cognitive function was related to high lifetime cognitive engagement and low vascular risk, Aβ load had no relation to current cognitive function. The covariance between high adult socioeconomic status, high education, and low smoking prevalence predicted better cognitive function and this was mediated by larger hippocampal volume. Our data show that lifestyle is a complex construct composed of associated variables, some of which reflect factors operating over the life span and others which may be developmental. These factors affect brain health via different pathways, which may reinforce one another. Our findings moreover support the importance of an intellectually enriched lifestyle accompanied by vascular health on both cognition and presumed cerebral mediators of cognitive function.

Background Brain reserve is a concept introduced to explain why Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients with a greater brain volume prior to onset of pathology generally have better clinical outcomes. In this review, we provide a historical background of the emergence of brain reserve and discuss several aspects that need further clarification, including the dynamic or static nature of the concept and its underlying mechanisms and clinical effect. We then describe how brain reserve has been operationalized over the years, and critically evaluate the use of intracranial volume (ICV) as the most widely used proxy for brain reserve. Furthermore, we perform a meta-analysis showing that ICV is associated with higher cognitive performance after adjusting for the presence and amount of pathology. Although we acknowledge its imperfections, we conclude that the use of ICV as a proxy for brain reserve is currently warranted. However, further development of more optimal measures of brain reserve as well as a more clearly defined theoretical framework is essential.