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Recently, the opening of immature and green pods has been identified in some soybean genotypes and it has raised concern. The cause of this opening has not been elucidated yet, but there is some evidence it may be associated with water‐deficit occurrences. Thus, this study aimed to verify the influence of water deficit on the opening of immature pods and correlate this feature with other agronomic traits. For this purpose, two trials using 99 soybean genotypes were carried out in a greenhouse. The plants were kept under two irrigation treatments: control treatment (soil kept at water potential of −33 kPa) and water‐deficit treatment (soil kept at water potential of −900 kPa, imposed between the R3 and R6 development stages). The number of immature open pods was analysed descriptively and we found that, in both trials, the water‐deficit treatment favoured the opening of immature pods of some genotypes. In trial 1, we evidenced that, under water deficit, grains tend to have greater volumes, and thus, the pod does not bear the size of the grain and shatters. In trial 2, in addition to water deficit, other factors acted on grain size and, consequently, on the opening of immature pods. According to the correlation analysis, the other evaluated agronomic traits did not behave in a consistent way in the two trials, and so they would not be recommended for the indirect selection of the opening of immature pods. Besides water deficit, other soil and climate factors might affect this process of immature pod opening. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We compared the the nutrient and functional contents of two immature soybean (edamame) varieties, "Tamafukura" and "Yuagarimusume" (as the control), using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) quadrupole (Q) time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometry imaging (MSI). From soybean cross sections, we detected vitamin B1 (VB1; m/z 265.123) and vitamin B2 (VB2; m/z 377.146), and daidzein 7-O-glycoside as an isoflavone precursor (m/z 417.118) by tandem MS analysis. Results from MALDI-Q-TOF MSI indicated VB1 and VB2, and daidzein 7-O-glycoside as functional components localized in the cotyledon and hilum, respectively. The relative amounts of VB1 and daidzein 7-O-glycoside were 1.13-1.15-fold higher in Tamafukura than in Yuagarimusume. There was no difference in the relative amount of VB2 between the two types of edamame. These findings highlight the importance of not only determining the difference between soybean varieties, but also the value of visualizing the localization of their content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mature and immature soybeans were stored for 6 months. Every month, soybeans were analysed for oil content, moisture percentage, acid value, peroxide value, fatty acid analysis, meal protein and urease activity in soybean meal. In addition, soybean samples were heated to different temperatures and times and the effect of heating on dehulling was studied. Finally control charts of acid and peroxide values were constructed and discussed.

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) is a carbon fixation enzyme which probably plays crucial roles in seed development. A greater number of PEPC isoforms are encoded in the soybean genome, while most of the PEPC isoforms are functionally unknown. In this study, we investigated on soybean PEPC expressed in the external layer of seed coat (ELSC) during seed formation. PEPC activity in ELSC ranged from 0.24 to 1.0 U/g F.W., which could be comparable to those in whole seeds at U per dry matter. Public RNA-Seq data in separated soybean seed tissues revealed that six plant-type PEPC isogenes were substantially expressed in ELSC, and Gmppc1 and Gmppc7 were highly expressed in hourglass cells of ELSC. Gene Ontology enrichment of co-expressed genes with Gmppc1 and Gmppc7 implicated a role of these isogenes in assisting energy production and cellulose biosynthesis. Comparison of PEPC sequences from 16 leguminous species hypothesized adaptive evolution of the Gmppc1 and Gmppc7 lineage after divergence from the other plant-type PEPC lineages. Molecular diversification of these plant-type PEPC was possibly accomplished by adaptation to the functions of the soybean seed tissues. This study indicates that energy demand in immature seeds may be a driving force for the molecular evolution of PEPC., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The complex network of regulatory factors and interactions involved in transcriptional regulation within the seed is not well understood. To evaluate gene expression regulation in the immature seed, we utilized a genetical genomics approach on a soybean [ (L.) Merr.] recombinant inbred line (RIL) population and produced a genome-wide expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) dataset. The validity of the dataset was confirmed by mapping the eQTL hotspot for flavonoid biosynthesis-related genes to a region containing repeats of chalcone synthase (CHS) genes known to correspond to the soybean inhibitor locus that regulates seed color. We then identified eQTL for genes with seed-specific expression and discovered striking eQTL hotspots at distinct genomic intervals on chromosomes (Chr) 20, 7, and 13. The main eQTL hotspot for transcriptional regulation of fatty acid biosynthesis genes also coincided with regulation of oleosin genes. Transcriptional upregulation of genesets from eQTL with opposite allelic effects were also found. Gene–eQTL networks were constructed and candidate regulatory genes were identified from these three key loci specific to seed expression and enriched in genes involved in seed oil accumulation. Our data provides new insight into the complex nature of gene networks in the immature soybean seed and the genetic architecture that contributes to seed development.

为研究大豆原料对油脂品质的影响，选取同一批次的未成熟与成熟大豆为原料，采用索氏抽提法提取大豆油，分析未成熟与成熟大豆油在理化指标、甘油酯及脂肪酸组成、微量组分组成及含量、低温结晶特性等方面的差异。结果表明：未成熟大豆油的酸值、过氧化值、茴香胺值、全氧化值、共轭二烯值均显著高于成熟大豆油的；与成熟大豆油相比，未成熟大豆油中二饱和一不饱和脂肪酸甘三酯含量升高了22%，其甘三酯、甘一酯、1,2-甘二酯、1,3-甘二酯的饱和脂肪酸含量增加了12%左右，并且其甘二酯含量是成熟大豆油的1.4倍；未成熟大豆油中磷脂酸含量是成熟大豆油的3.2倍，总生育酚、总甾醇含量比成熟大豆油分别降低了8.2%、13.0%，叶绿素含量是成熟大豆油的206.3倍；未成熟大豆油比成熟大豆油更容易结晶，在0 ℃时出现浑浊的时间更早，在-20、-15 ℃ 时的固体脂肪含量更高，并且其微晶形成及固态转变的温度更高，这可能与其含有较多的饱和脂肪酸、高熔点甘三酯及甘二酯有关。因此，在实际生产中应尽量减少未成熟大豆原料的占比，以提高成品油的品质。 In order to study the effects of soybean raw materials on oil quality, Soxhlet extraction method was used to extract oil from immature and mature soybean in the same batch, and the differences in physicochemical indexes, glyceride and fatty acid composition, trace components composition and contents,and low temperature crystallization characteristics of immature and mature soybean oil were analyzed. The results showed that the acid value, peroxide value, anisidine value, total oxidation value and conjugated diene value of immature soybean oil were significantly higher than those of mature soybean oil. Compared with mature soybean oil, the contents of disaturated monounsaturated fatty acid triglyceride in immature soybean oil increased by 22%， the contents of saturated fatty acids of triglyceride, monoglyceride, 1,2-diacylglycerol, 1,3-diacylglycerol in immature soybean oil increased by about 12%, and the content of diacylglycerol was 1.4 times of that in mature soybean oil. The content of phospholipid acid in immature soybean oil was 3.2 times of that in mature soybean oil, the contents of total tocopherol and total sterol decreased by 8.2% and 13.0% respectively, and the chlorophyll content was 206.3 times of that in mature soybean oil.In addition, immature soybean oil crystallized more easily than mature soybean oil, the turbidity time was earlier at 0 ℃, the solid fat content was larger at -20 ℃ and -15 ℃, and the temperature of microcrystalline formation and solid phase transition was higher, which might be related to the higher contents of saturated fatty acids, high melting point triglyceride and diacylglycerol.In actual production, the proportion of immature soybean in raw materials should be minimized to improve the quality of the finished oil.

Soybean downgrading due to immature (green and semi-green) color at harvest, caused by frost conditions, poses a significant loss to producers and processors. After harvest, drying and storage are important for preserving the quality of the harvested produce. This study investigated the impact of drying on color change in harvested immature soybeans and the effect of the soybean moisture content, storage environment (temperature, light, and aeration), and storage period on color change and oil quality of immature soybeans. Soybeans were harvested at three different maturity stages: R6 (green) and R7 (semi-green) in pods and R8 (fully matured) in seed. The soybeans in pods were dried, shelled, and conditioned to moisture contents of 12% and 17% (wet basis) prior to storage in 12 storage chamber (box) environments. The chambers were built to have four environments of “light” and “no light” with and without aeration and were stored at temperatures of either 4 °C or 23.5 °C for 24 weeks. Samples were taken every 2 weeks for 2 months and then bimonthly in storage. Soybean color change during drying and their chlorophyll, color, peroxide value (PV), and free fatty acid (FFA) status in storage were determined. Visual observation showed that R6 (green) soybean color faded after 48 h drying, which was supported with a colorimeter reading as the “a” value increased from −8.89 to −3.83 and −8.89 to −1.71 with 37 °C and 27 °C drying temperatures, respectively. The ANOVA analysis showed that light had the greatest contribution (~81%) to the color change compared to the other three storage environment factors of temperature (~9.1%), aeration (~8%), and moisture content (~1.5%) with

The soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] reproductive cycle represents more than 50% of the length of the total growth cycle. Immature embryo culture could be used to shorten this cycle. This study was conducted to develop an efficient technique to shorten the soybean reproductive cycle and to make it possible to develop recombinant lines from populations more rapidly. The importance of a pod pretreatment before embryo extraction, the effects of embryo age an germination rate, embryo position in the pod, and the composition of the germination medium (supplemented with sucrose or not) were analyzed to define an optimal technique. Plant recovery rate and genotype effects on germination were evaluated with 22 genotypes representing a broad genetic background. It was necessary to pretreat immature seed by exposing pods to 26 ° C for 4 d to induce germination. Best results (up to 100% germination) were obtained from embryos sampled at the end of lag phase of seed development (approximately 19 d after flowering). For three-seeded pods, the central embryos generally bad a higher germination rate than distal and proximal embryos (25 and 44 percentage points, respectively). Whatever the embryo position in the pod, adding sucrose significantly increased the germination of embryos sampled 14 to 18 d after flowering. Plantlets were obtained from 73% of the germinated embryos and the length of cycle win reduced from 130 to 140 d to 65 to 70 it. Average germination of the 22 genotypes was 80%; thus, this technique, paired with the single seed descent method, provides soybean breeders with a tool to develop lines quickly., The reproductive cycle represents more than 50% of the length of the total life cycle for soybean. In vitro culture of immature embryos has a number of basic and applied [...]

Isoflavones and carotenoids in four experimental genotypes and Hutcheson cultivar soybeans were evaluated as a function of processing treatments and maturity. Total isoflavone and carotenoid contents were affected by genotypes and maturity stages (p < 0.0001). Total isoflavones ranged from 472 microg/g (in NTCPR93-40) to 2280 microg/g (in Hutcheson). Lutein contents ranged from 895 (in NTCPR93-286) to 2119 (in Honey Brown), and beta-carotene ranged from 291 (in Hutcheson) to 491 (in NICPR92-40) microg/100 g. Mean total isoflavone retention percentages in immature Hutcheson soybeans were 46% (boiling), 53% (freezing), and 40% (freeze-drying). Mean retentions of lutein and beta-carotene, respectively, were 92 and 73% in frozen, 62 and 62% in boiled, and 34 and 27% in freeze-dried soybeans. Boiling caused a substantial increase in daidzin, genistin, and genistein. The results show that post-harvest changes in total isoflavones and carotenoids in soybeans are influenced by processing methods, but genotype has an effect on isoflavone and carotenoid profiles during seed development.

Inositol 1,3,4,5,6-pentakisphosphate 2-kinase was purified from immature soybean seeds harvested approximately 5 weeks post-anthesis. A crude extract was clarified using polyethyleneimine and purified by chromatography on DEAE-cellulose, Cibacron Blue 3GA-agarose, Toyopearl DEAE 650M, and Toyopearl phenyl 650M columns. The enzyme had a relative molecular mass, M(r), of 52,000 as determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-poly-acrylamide gel electrophoresis and retained 50% of its activity after 6 weeks at 0 degrees C. The Km values for inositol 1,3,4,5,6-pentakisphosphate and MgATP, respectively, were 2.3 microM and 8.4 microM, and the Vmax was 243 nmol/min/mg. The pH and temperature optima, respectively, were 6.8 and 42 degrees C. Maximum activity was obtained when the magnesium ion concentration was 4 mM. The kinase specifically phosphorylated the 2-position on the inositol ring and could also utilize D-inositol 1,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate as a substrate. The K for the reaction was 14, indicating that the enzyme may be involved in both inositol hexakisphosphate formation in maturing seeds and ATP resynthesis in germinating seeds. Substrate concentrations in mature seeds were favorable for ATP formation, whereas additional factors appeared to drive the accumulation of inositol hexakisphosphate in maturing seeds.

This study aimed to characterize and correlate the stylet penetration behaviors of nymphs of the Neotropical brown stink bug, Euschistus heros (F.), on immature soybean pods. Waveforms were obtained using electropenetrography (EPG). The findings revealed that the nymphs exploited the xylem vessels and the seed tegument or endosperm. Primarily 4 phases were characterized: nonfeeding, pathway, salivation, and ingestion. The waveforms of each phase were similar in appearance across instars. The biological meanings of waveforms were based on visual observations, comparison with waveforms of adults, and histological studies. Np represents the insect resting or walking on soybean pod surface. Eh1 represents the first contact between the mouthparts (stylets) and plant tissue. Eh2 represents xylem sap ingestion, and Eh3 represents seed activities (including tegument and endosperm). The number of waveform events did not differ among instars for all waveforms. However, for Eh3, fifth instars performed more activities than other instars. The second instars had the smallest value, and third and fourth instars had intermediate values. For total duration, all waveforms differed among instars. Np duration was shorter for third compared with second and fourth instars and intermediate for fifth instar. For Eh1, second and third instars had the longest duration (1.5× to 2× greater) compared with fourth and fifth instars. For Eh2 and Eh3, the second-instar showed the longest (~2× greater) and shortest durations, respectively. Overall, this study provides important insights into the feeding behavior of E. heros nymphs so that effective pest management programs can be developed to contain this pest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immature soybean embryos were isolated from soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] seeds at various stages of development to study their accumulation of [(14)C]sucrose in vitro. Isolated embryos accumulate sucrose at a constant rate over several hours, the label entering large, endogenous pools of sucrose from which starch, protein, and lipid storage products are formed. Accumulation is without extracellular sucrose hydrolysis and occurs predominantly by active transport at physiological sucrose concentrations. A nonsaturable diffusion component, apparently superimposed upon the active saturable component, dominates overall uptake at exogenous concentrations greater than approximately 50 millimolar sucrose. Active transport is sensitive to uncoupling agents and the sulfhydryl-modifying reagent p-chloromecuribenzene sulfonate, is dependent on more than one energy source, and exhibits well-defined requirements for incubation temperature, pH, and oxygen availability. Under optimal incubation conditions of 35 degrees C, saturating illumination (pH 6), and 21% oxygen, the apparent K(m) for sucrose is approximately 8 millimolar and V(max) is approximately 0.6 micromoles per hour per 100 milligrams fresh weight. Embryos readily accumulate sucrose from dilute exogenous solutions and, when preloaded with large amounts of sucrose, maintain the internal sucrose pool against steep outward gradients. These and other observations indicate that, although perhaps fully saturated in vivo, active sucrose transport is a significant component of photosynthate uptake in developing soybean embryos, enhancing uptake at physiological sucrose concentrations 2- to 5-fold over diffusion alone.

Metabolism of lipid molecular species in soybean cotyledons (Glycine max [L.] Merr. var. "Harosoy 63") was determined from incorporation studies with radioactive acetate and glycerol. Lipid synthetic activity was highest in immature cotyledons at 30 days after flowering. Distinct differences in labeling patterns of molecular species within lipid classes demonstrated that selective utilization of diglyceride intermediates occurred in complex lipid biosynthesis in soybean. The phospholipid molecular species in this tissue that displayed the highest turnover rates had the following acyl combinations: saturate-linoleic and dioleic in phosphatidic acid; saturate-oleic in phosphatidylinositol and phosphatidylethanolamine; dioleic in phosphatidylcholine; oleic-dilinoleic in N-acylphosphatidylethanolamine. Saturate-dilinoleic, oleic-dilinoleic, trioleic, and trilinoleic structures were rapidly synthesized species of triglyceride in immature soybean cotyledons.

Immature embryos of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr., cvs. Beeson, Chippewa, Swift, and Tonica] ranging from globular to cotyledon stages were cultured in vitro. A variety of media consisting of 24 combinations of basic media salts, growth regulators, and carbon sources was tested in conjunction with initial exposure of cultures to light or darkness. The best combination tested was B5 medium supplemented with 0.1 mg · 1(-1) indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and an intitial exposure to darkness for two weeks. The survival rate increased progressively with embryo age and stage of development. Approximately 10% of late globular-early heart stage embryos survived to sexual maturity and produced seed whereas virtually 100% of the cotyledon stage embryos produced plants which flowered and set fruit. Approximately 25% of the globular stage embryos were induced to initiate a hypophysis but they subsequently either formed callus or died within a week. Although plants resulting from in vitro culture of immature embryos were diminutive, they otherwise were morphologically normal and produced seed of normal size and weight, as did their progeny., (Copyright © 1984 Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart. Published by Elsevier GmbH.. All rights reserved.)