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Students with both academic and behavioral risk factors can benefit from participation in self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) instruction. Educators can use systematic screening procedures as part of effective data-informed decision making for identifying students who could benefit from SRSD. In this manuscript we detail screening procedures for both academic and behavioral risk factors to connect identified students with SRSD instruction. Recommendations for screening practices are provided including future directions for research.

Replication is a foundation of the development of a knowledge base in an evidence-based field such as education. This study includes two direct replications of Hosp, Hensley, Huddle, and Ford which found evidence of criterion-related validity of curriculum-based measurement (CBM) for reading and mathematics with postsecondary students with developmental disabilities (DD). Participants included two cohorts of postsecondary students with DD enrolled in a 2-year certificate program at a large Midwestern university (n = 24 and 21). Using the same standardized procedures as Hosp et al., participants were administered CBMs for Oral Passage Reading (OPR), Maze, Math Computation, and Math Concepts and Applications. Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations between CBMs and the content-appropriate "Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement--Third Edition" were calculated. No significant differences in criterion-related validity coefficients between cohorts were found but differences between the correlations for Math Computation and Math Concepts and Applications identified in Hosp et al. were not found in either replication cohort.

This replication study examined the alternate form reliability, criterion validity, and predictive utility of two curriculum-based measurement (CBM) tools in science, Vocabulary-Matching (VM) and Statement Verification for Science (SV-S), for the purpose of screening. In all, 205 seventh-grade students from four middle schools were given alternate forms of each science CBM tool. Scores from the Idaho Standards Achievement Test (ISAT) science assessment were obtained. Stronger evidence of reliability and validity with the ISAT was found for VM compared with SV-S. With regard to predictive utility, VM more accurately classified students' at-risk status compared with SV-S for identifying proficiency on the ISAT. Practical implications and directions for future research are also discussed.

While curriculum-based measurement (CBM) tools for screening decisions in reading, mathematics, and written language have been well examined, tools for use in content areas (e.g., science and social studies) remain in the beginning stages of research. In this study, two alternate forms of a new CBM tool (Statement Verification for Science; SV-S), for screening decisions regarding students' science content knowledge, is examined for technical adequacy. A total of 1,545 students across Grades 7 (N = 799) and 8 (N = 746) completed two alternate forms of SV-S concurrently with a statewide high-stakes test of accountability. Promising results were found for reliability, in particular internal consistency, while results related to evidence of criterion- and construct-related validity were less than desired. Such results, along with additional exploratory analyses, provide support for future research of SV-S as a CBM tool to assist teachers and other educators with making screening decisions.

Universal screening practices play a critical role in preventing reading difficulties. Screening decisions typically rely on results from several curriculum-based measurement (CBM) tools. In this study, data from 236 first graders were pulled as a subsample from a statewide study. Participants completed multiple early literacy CBM tools and an outcome measure. Performance differences were compared across tools and publishers to examine classification accuracy. Results show no differences in performance between nonsense word fluency tools across publishers, yet differences were found examining classification accuracy. We also report results of an exploratory analysis examining whether improvements in testing efficiency in early literacy screening are possible via multiple-gating procedures. Improving the accuracy and efficiency of screening procedures are discussed as implications for practice.

In the present study, two types of curriculum-based measurement (CBM) tools in science, Vocabulary Matching (VM) and Statement Verification for Science (SV-S), a modified Sentence Verification Technique, were compared. Specifically, this study aimed to determine whether the format of information presented (i.e., SV-S vs. VM) produces differences in alternate form reliability and validity of scores or any differences in accuracy of prediction of scores on the state standardized science assessment. Overall, 25 eighth-grade science students were administered two SV-S and two VM forms with identical items along with spring eighth-grade maze passages from Aimsweb. Students had recently taken the eighth-grade state science test. Results regarding technical adequacy for each CBM tool were consistent with past findings. However, this study extends the literature base on CBM tools in science by providing evidence for using standards to develop VM forms. In addition, despite probable ceiling effects, additional evidence was found for the potential of SV-S as a CBM tool in science.

Specific learning disabilities (SLD) conceptual definitions and classification criteria were examined through a survey of state education agency (SEA) SLD contact persons in an effort to update information last published in 1996. Most prior trends continued over the last decade. Results showed that SEA SLD classification criteria continue to be dominated by three features, severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement, specified achievement areas, and exclusion factors. Significant variability between states also continues to exist in SLD prevalence, conceptual definitions, and classification criteria. SLD diagnostic decisions depend heavily on SEA classification criteria, producing potential changes in the eligibility of children for special education depending on their state of residence. Dissatisfaction with current SLD criteria is discussed along with likely future trends.

A review of 10 studies on the rates of referral for intervention or assessment of students from three racial groups (Caucasian, African American, and Hispanic), found the mean risk ratios comparing the referral rates between African American and Caucasian students were significantly different from zero. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Intervention researchers often use curriculum-based measurement of reading fluency (CBM-R) with a brief experimental analysis (BEA) to identify an effective intervention for individual students. The current study synthesized data from 22 studies that used CBM-R data within a BEA by computing the standard error of measure (SEM) for the median data point from the baseline and intervention data. The median CBM-R score from the intervention that the authors of each study identified as most effective fell within the SEM (68% confidence interval) of the baseline data approximately 30% of the time, but the ranges for the two author-identified most effective interventions overlapped over 75% of the time. Extended analyses were consistent with the BEA results for approximately three-fourths of the instances after considering the SEM of the baseline and intervention phases. Using matched passages did not improve the overlap of the ranges, but there was less overlap when the study used three data points per condition. Results emphasize the importance of considering SEM of CBM-R data when comparing interventions within a BEA. Further implications for practice and future research are included.

The present study examined the technical adequacy of maze-selection tasks constructed in 2 different ways: typical versus novel. We selected distractors for each measure systematically based on rules related to the content of the passage and the part of speech of the correct choice. Participants included 262 middle school students who were randomly assigned to 1 of the 2 maze formats. Scoring of the maze included both correct and correct-minus-incorrect scores. Students completed 3 criterion-reading tests: the Scholastic Reading Inventory, the AIMSweb R-Maze, and a high-stakes state assessment (the Missouri Assessment Program). Alternate-forms reliability was similar across maze formats; however, with regard to scoring procedure, reliability coefficients were consistently higher for correct than for correct-minus-incorrect scores. Validity coefficients were also similar across format with 1 exception: The coefficients for typical maze scores were stronger when compared with the Missouri Assessment Program scores than the coefficients for novel maze scores.

Twenty-three single-subject studies aimed at improving the writing achievement of students identified as having a learning disability were analyzed meta-analytically. The effect size phi was used to compare the writing strategies. The dependent measures used to assess the efficacy of the interventions were also coded and reviewed. Results suggest intervention studies using the self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) or a non-SRSD writing strategy produced high effect sizes, suggesting the overall success of the writing interventions. Findings also indicate the 23 studies used a total of 39 dependent measures, which show the way writing achievement is measured varies greatly. Furthermore, many of the dependent measures were not standardized or technically sound.

Advances in maze selection curriculum-based measurement have led to several published tools with technical information for interpretation (e.g., norms, benchmarks, cut-scores, classification accuracy) that have increased their usefulness for universal screening. A range of scoring practices have emerged for evaluating student performance on maze selection (e.g., correct restoration, incorrect restoration, correct restoration minus incorrect restoration, and correct restoration minus one-half incorrect restoration). However, lack of clear understanding about the intersection between scoring and interpretation has resulted in limited evidence about using maze selection for making universal screening decisions. In this study, 925 students in Grades 3-6 completed two curriculum-based measurements for maze selection. Student performance on the two was compared across different scoring metrics. Limitations and practical implications are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to examine the vocabulary teaching of primary-grade teachers (K-3) in low-income schools. A total of 337 observations were conducted during language arts blocks over a three-year period. A coding scheme was developed to analyze teachers' vocabulary instruction. Results indicated that teachers spent less than 5% of their language arts block on vocabulary instruction (7.55 minutes). Most of that time was spent on teaching individual word meanings with less time spent on word-learning strategies. As well, the majority of time was spent on teacher-student interactions using both oral and written forms of communication.

A phenomenon is spreading across institutions of higher education (IHEs)--the participation of students with intellectual disabilities (ID) in inclusive postsecondary education programs. Data on two cohorts of first-year students with ID indicate that these students are experiencing college life, as measured by the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE), similarly to other first-year college students. These results provide preliminary evidence of the feasibility and value of educating students with cognitive challenges on university campuses.

The purpose of this study was to provide preliminary evidence of the criterion-related validity of curriculum-based measurement (CBM) for reading, mathematics, and written expression with postsecondary students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (ID). The participants included 41 postsecondary students with ID enrolled in a 2-year certificate program at a large Midwestern university. CBMs were administered to participants using standardized procedures, and results were compared with performance on the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement. Descriptive statistics were calculated as were bivariate correlations between CBM measures and the content-appropriate criterion measure. Results are discussed in terms of the potential use of CBMs as indicators of academic performance for postsecondary students with ID.

Over the past few decades, reading assessment has been pushed to the forefront of the national discussion about education. The most recent reauthorizations of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1994, 2001) made assessment a priority as administrators and teachers are attempting to meet increasing accountability standards, but measuring reading ability is a difficult task. The complexity of the reading process makes it challenging to assess exactly what is happening when readers read and understand text. Part of this challenge could be that research into the assessment and treatment of reading difficulties has developed a focus on maximizing intervention effects. Though ensuring that reading interventions have the strongest impact on student performance, the focus on performance has arguably migrated the field away from interventions that are based on reading theory. Both theory and student performance are important foci, but maximum effect sizes in intervention research and maximum differentiation in assessment research could drift to align more closely over time as intervention research uses the tests designed to differentiate. This could potentially narrow the functioning construct of reading in assessment and intervention to become unidimensional, which could lead to ignoring important aspects of reading that are more difficult to measure or change through intervention. The four articles included in this special series all relate to the assessment of oral reading. They illustrate some of the advances yet to be made in the field in order to continuously define "best practice." In this article, the authors provide an overview of the need for and purpose of reading assessment, summarize each of the articles in this special series, and explore the need for assessment and intervention that is aligned with specific components of reading, as well as general reading ability.

The purpose of this study was to determine the relation between word recognition errors made at a letter-sound pattern level on a word list and on a curriculum-based measurement oral reading fluency measure (CBM-ORF) for typical and struggling elementary readers. The participants were second, third, and fourth grade typical and struggling readers (n = 69) who were systematically sampled from a pool of 265 students participating in a larger study. Participants read a nonsense word list composed of 599 words across 89 letter-sound patterns and three CBM-ORF passages. Pearson product-moment (Pearson "r") correlation coefficients indicate students' recognition of letter-sound patterns on word list and CBM-ORF differs between patterns as well as between type of reader. Results are discussed in terms of usefulness for CBM-ORF to assess letter-sound pattern recognition skills of typical and struggling elementary readers. (Contains 3 figures and 4 tables.)

Universal screening measures are an integral component of any tiered system of instructional delivery. Recent studies of screening measures have often excluded examinations of bias in predictive validity. The present study examined a common screening instrument for evidence of bias in predictive validity across the four disaggregation categories of the No Child Left Behind Act. Performance of 3,805 students in Grades 1-3 on the Nonsense Word Fluency and Oral Reading Fluency measures of the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills were examined cross-sectionally in relation to a state criterion-referenced test. Bias in predictive validity was found, but varied by grade and by disaggregation category. Implications are discussed. (Contains 7 tables and 4 figures.)

Spelling is an important, but often overlooked, component of literacy instruction and development. Although it is related to other aspects of literacy, there are independent theories of spelling development as well as assessment and instructional strategies that align with these theories. This article summarizes the rationale for linking assessment and instruction within the domain of spelling and provides an overview of this special series on spelling assessment and instruction.

This study examines the relation between decoding and spelling performance on tasks that represent identical specific grapho-phonemic patterns. Elementary students (N = 206) were administered a 597 pseudoword decoding inventory representing 12 specific grapho-phonemic patterns and a 104 real-word spelling inventory representing identical grapho-phonemic patterns presented on the decoding inventory. Correlational and quantile regression analyses revealed a moderate to strong correlation between student performance in decoding and spelling tasks, with stronger relations found among more complex grapho-phonemic patterns and weaker relations found among less complex grapho-phonemic patterns. The results of this study support the utility of a spelling assessment with items representing a wide range of grapho-phonemic patterns as a screener for specific areas of grapho-phonemic knowledge weakness and provide educators with an efficient method of collecting the data needed to develop targeted interventions. (Contains 3 tables and 1 figure.)

This article provides a summary of the five years of implementation of the first cohort of schools participating in Utah's Reading First Initiative. Fifteen schools across six districts comprised this cohort. Performance is compared to the performance of a cohort of matched comparison schools as well as the average state performance on the Utah Language Arts Criterion-referenced Tests (CRTs). Results indicate that Reading First schools appeared to have made greater gains than comparison schools or the state average in the percentage of students achieving proficiency on the CRTs. In addition, the achievement gap for most disaggregated groups was reduced, and greater performance was noted for students who spent three years in Reading First schools rather than one or two. These data are in contrast to the results of the Reading First Impact Study, but highlight the need to examine the contextual effects of systemic reform initiatives such as the Reading First Initiative. (Contains 3 tables, 6 figures, and 2 notes.)

The educational success of Latino students has never been a more pressing issue. As of July 2001, people of Hispanic origin are the second largest racial/ethnic group in the United States and continue to be the fastest growing group in the United States. Despite this, there is little research on the behavior of Latino students--possibly because they are underrepresented in programs for students with emotional disturbance (ED). However, Latino youth are overrepresented in juvenile correctional facilities at more than 5 times their rate in ED programs and 3 times their rate in the general population. This article presents a framework for addressing the needs of Latino students from the perspective of an integrated system involving the individual and his or her environment. (Contains 1 figure.)

The purpose of this case study is to describe the challenges one coach faced during the initial implementation of a coaching initiative involving 33 teachers in an urban, high-poverty elementary school. Reading coaches are increasingly expected to play a key role in the professional development efforts to improve reading instruction in order to improve reading achievement for struggling readers. Data sources included initial reading scores for kindergarten and first-graders, pretest and posttest scores of teachers' knowledge, a teacher survey, focus group interviews, project documents, and field notes. Data were analyzed using a mixed methods approach. Findings revealed several challenges that have important implications for research and practice: that teachers encountered new information about teaching early reading that conflicted with their current knowledge, this new information conflicted with their core reading program, teachers had differing perceptions of the role of the reading coach that affected their feelings about the project, and reform efforts are time-intensive. (Contains 3 tables.)

Assessment is a common task in education that has many varied purposes. One of these is the use of assessment data to make decisions about instructional planning. This article presents a framework for how to use assessment data to plan instruction. It also provides some background on terminology of assessment for instructional planning, considerations for the development or use of assessment measures, and guidance for designing instruction. (Contains 2 tables.)

Poor math performance is a major concern leading the current educational reform agenda. Many educational math critics are claiming a math crisis. Researchers and school personnel are trying to resolve this crisis. Some are looking at curriculum-based evaluation (CBE) as a process for solving this problem. CBE and curriculum-based measurement (CBM) are widely accepted validated tools for effectively yielding information necessary to make sound educational decisions. In this article, best practices in CBE and CBM are described as they pertain to math instruction. Specific steps of the CBE process are described as they pertain to math.

Recently in a "New York Times" op-ed entitled "Is Special Education Racist?" Morgan and Farkas (2015) confront conventional wisdom that there are too many minority students in special education stating, "The real problem is that Black children are underrepresented in special education classes when compared with White children with similar level of academic achievement, behavior, and family economic resources." This bold statement was made because on the same day they published an article in the "Educational Researcher" (Morgan er al., 2015) with data that they interpreted to indicate that there are not enough minority students in special education. In translating their findings to policy recommendations, they note that: "For policymakers, results suggest that current federal legislation and policymaking designed to minimize overidentification of minorities in special education may be misdirected (Government Accountability Office, 2013; U.S. Department of Education, 2014), including the reallocation of Part B funding to early intervening services designed to reduce minority overrepresentation in special education. How could they come to this conclusion given five decades of research to the contrary? The purpose of this article is to summarize the findings of this and previous research, to discuss the methods used to reach the conclusion, and to outline implications for school psychologists.

Research on variables that predict disproportionate representation of minority students in special education has often ignored an important variable -- academic achievement. This study examined the prediction of representation of students from various minority racial/ethnic groups using district-level academic, demographic, and economic blocks of variables. The relative strength of these blocks was tested using weighted multiple least squares regression. The results show that academic achievement added significantly to predictive models for various racial/ethnic groups and disability categories. Implications and directions for future research are also discussed.

The purpose of this article is to provide a rationale for collecting and using curriculum-based measurement (CB) data as well as providing specific guidelines for how to collect CBM data in reading, spelling, and math. Relying on the research conducted on CBM over the past 25 years, we define what CBM is and how it is different from curriculum-based assessment (CBA). We describe in detail how to monitor student growth within an instructional program using CBM data in reading, spelling, and math. Last, we discuss reasons teachers should collect and use CBM data. (Contains 4 tables and 4 figures.)

A study explored differences in the special education programming of 115 African-American and 115 Caucasian students (grades 3-5). Although a clear pattern was found in variables related to placement restrictiveness, the pattern was similar for African-American and Caucasian students. Variables include problem severity, presence of behavioral problems, and family involvement. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Abstract Schools across the United States are faced with increased student diversity and the challenge of providing a high-quality education for all students as mandated by the No Child Left [...]

Multilevel modeling (MLM) is a term that encompasses many terms for statistical analyses that include variables at different levels. In education it is generally referred to as hierarchical linear modeling (HLM), linear mixed modeling (LMM), or growth curve modeling, but also includes terms such as: random-coefficient regression modeling, mixed-effects modeling, random-effects modeling, or nonlinear regression of variance components, among others. It has become increasingly more frequently used in educational and psychological research for two reasons: researchers have become increasingly aware of the need to consider the complex structure of education rather than treating every individual as a completely independent entity, and the software has become readily accessible as computing power has increased. As every school psychologist knows, students are not educated in a vacuum. Students are part of different subgroups such as those based on demographic characteristics (e.g., gender or race/ethnicity) or academic or behavioral performance (e.g., requiring Tier 1, 2, or 3 supports). Students are also grouped into classes, where they share a teacher; grades, where they share a curriculum or standards; schools, where they share a set of resources; and districts, where they share a different set of resources. That structure of individuals belonging to groups and those groups belonging to larger groups is called "nesting." The clustering of individuals within groups is an inherent structure in education. Individual students are nested within classrooms, classrooms are within schools, schools within districts, and districts within states. There are also numerous applications for examining repeated measurements of student performance across time, whether in ongoing progress monitoring or annual high stakes testing. Both of these applications are key features of MLM and reasons why these models are necessities in educational research.