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Gravitational forces are expected to excite spiral density waves in protoplanetary disks, disks of gas and dust orbiting young stars. However, previous observations that showed spiral structure were not able to probe disk midplanes, where most of the mass is concentrated and where planet formation takes place. Using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array, we detected a pair of trailing symmetric spiral arms in the protoplanetary disk surrounding the young star Elias 2-27. The arms extend to the disk outer regions and can be traced down to the midplane. These millimeter-wave observations also reveal an emission gap closer to the star than the spiral arms. We argue that the observed spirals trace shocks of spiral density waves in the midplane of this young disk., (Copyright © 2016, American Association for the Advancement of Science.)

Granular matter is characterized by a collection of grains, where the collective behavior relies on interactions among all constituent particles, generally including both cohesive and dissipative interactions. Understanding and predicting granular behavior is pivotal for both basic science and technological applications, ranging from astrophysics to geology, cereal storage, and cosmetics development. The structure of these aggregates varies depending on the environment but often involves a highly porous configuration. In this study, we introduce our AGregate GENeration Tool (AGGENT) specifically designed for constructing granular aggregates with varying levels of porosity, shapes, and grain sizes. The software facilitates aggregate generation using JKR or DMT cohesive models with a finite grain overlap, enabling the achievement of highly homogeneous aggregates. The behavior of porosity of the generated samples near surfaces is also discussed. These generated samples can subsequently be utilized for performing various simulations, allowing for further analysis of granular behavior under different conditions of interest, including transport, mechanical and thermal properties, etc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The statistics of discovered exoplanets suggest that planets form efficiently. However, there are fundamental unsolved problems, such as excessive inward drift of particles in protoplanetary disks during planet formation. Recent theories invoke dust traps to overcome this problem. We report the detection of a dust trap in the disk around the star Oph IRS 48 using observations from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). The 0.44-millimeter-wavelength continuum map shows high-contrast crescent-shaped emission on one side of the star, originating from millimeter-sized grains, whereas both the mid-infrared image (micrometer-sized dust) and the gas traced by the carbon monoxide 6-5 rotational line suggest rings centered on the star. The difference in distribution of big grains versus small grains/gas can be modeled with a vortex-shaped dust trap triggered by a companion.

The Solar System originated in a cloud of interstellar gas and dust. The dust is in the form of amorphous silicate particles and carbonaceous dust. The composition of cometary material, however, shows that a significant fraction of the amorphous silicate dust was transformed into crystalline form during the early evolution of the protosolar nebula. How and when this transformation happened has been a question of debate, with the main options being heating by the young Sun and shock heating. Here we report mid-infrared features in the outburst spectrum of the young Sun-like star EX Lupi that were not present in quiescence. We attribute them to crystalline forsterite. We conclude that the crystals were produced through thermal annealing in the surface layer of the inner disk by heat from the outburst, a process that has hitherto not been considered. The observed lack of cold crystals excludes shock heating at larger radii.

Astronomers have found more than a dozen planets transiting stars that are 10–40 million years old1, but younger transiting planets have remained elusive. The lack of such discoveries may be because planets have not fully formed at this age or because our view is blocked by the protoplanetary disk. However, we now know that many outer disks are warped or broken2; provided the inner disk is depleted, transiting planets may thus be visible. Here we report observations of the transiting planet IRAS 04125+2902 b orbiting a 3-million-year-old, 0.7-solar-mass, pre-main-sequence star in the Taurus Molecular Cloud. The host star harbours a nearly face-on (30 degrees inclination) transitional disk3 and a wide binary companion. The planet has a period of 8.83 days, a radius of 10.7 Earth radii (0.96 Jupiter radii) and a 95%-confidence upper limit on its mass of 90 Earth masses (0.3 Jupiter masses) from radial-velocity measurements, making it a possible precursor of the super-Earths and sub-Neptunes frequently found around main-sequence stars. The rotational broadening of the star and the orbit of the wide (4 arcseconds, 635 astronomical units) companion are both consistent with edge-on orientations. Thus, all components of the system are consistent with alignment except the outer disk; the origin of this misalignment is unclear.Observations of a 3-million-year-old pre-main-sequence star with a misaligned disk reveal a giant orbiting planet; the system is ideal for studying the early formation and migration of planets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aggregates consisting of submicron-sized cohesive dust grains are ubiquitous, and understanding the collisional behavior of dust aggregates is essential. It is known that low-speed collisions of dust aggregates result in either sticking or bouncing, and local and permanent compaction occurs near the contact area upon collision. In this study, we perform numerical simulations of collisions between two aggregates and investigate their compressive behavior. We find that the maximum compression length is proportional to the radius of aggregates and increases with the collision velocity. We also reveal that a theoretical model of contact between two elastoplastic spheres successfully reproduces the size- and velocity-dependence of the maximum compression length observed in our numerical simulations. Our findings on the plastic deformation of aggregates during collisional compression provide a clue to understanding the collisional growth process of aggregates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The canonical theory for planet formation in circumstellar disks proposes that planets are grown from initially much smaller seeds1–5. The long-considered alternative theory proposes that giant protoplanets can be formed directly from collapsing fragments of vast spiral arms6–11 induced by gravitational instability12–14—if the disk is gravitationally unstable. For this to be possible, the disk must be massive compared with the central star: a disk-to-star mass ratio of 1:10 is widely held as the rough threshold for triggering gravitational instability, inciting substantial non-Keplerian dynamics and generating prominent spiral arms15–18. Although estimating disk masses has historically been challenging19–21, the motion of the gas can reveal the presence of gravitational instability through its effect on the disk-velocity structure22–24. Here we present kinematic evidence of gravitational instability in the disk around AB Aurigae, using deep observations of 13CO and C18O line emission with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). The observed kinematic signals strongly resemble predictions from simulations and analytic modelling. From quantitative comparisons, we infer a disk mass of up to a third of the stellar mass enclosed within 1″ to 5″ on the sky.Observations of gravitational instability in the disk around AB Aurigae using deep observations of 13CO and C18O line emission provide evidence that giant protoplanets can be formed from collapsing fragments of vast spiral arms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mantra "know thy star, know thy planet" has proven to be very important for many aspects of exoplanet science. Here I review how stellar abundances inform our understanding of planet composition and, thus, formation and evolution. In particular, I discuss how: The strongest star–planet connection is still the giant planet–metallicity correlation, the strength of which may indicate a break point between the formation of planets versus brown dwarfs. We do not have very good constraints on the lower metallicity limit for planet formation, although new statistics from TESS are helping, and it appears that, at low [Fe/H], α elements can substitute for iron as seeds for planet formation. The depletion of refractory versus volatile elements in stellar photospheres (particularly the Sun) was initially suggested as a sign of small planet formation but is challenging to interpret, and small differences in binary star compositions can be attributed mostly to processes other than planet formation. We can and should go beyond comparisons of the carbon-to-oxygen ratio in giant planets and their host stars, incorporating other volatile and refractory species to better constrain planet formation pathways. There appears to be a positive correlation between small planet bulk density and host star metallicity, but exactly how closely small planet refractory compositions match those of their host stars—and their true diversity—is still uncertain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ice mantles play a crucial role in shaping the astrochemical inventory of molecules during star and planet formation. Small-scale molecular processes have a profound impact on large-scale astronomical evolution. The areas of solid-state laboratory astrophysics and computational chemistry involve the study of these processes. We review laboratory efforts in ice spectroscopy, methodological advances and challenges, and laboratory and computational studies of ice physics and ice chemistry. We place the last of these in context with ice evolution from clouds to disks. Three takeaway messages from this review are: Laboratory and computational studies allow interpretation of astronomical ice spectra in terms of identification, ice morphology, and local environmental conditions as well as the formation of the involved chemical compounds. A detailed understanding of the underlying processes is needed to build reliable astrochemical models to make predictions about abundances in space. The relative importance of the different ice processes studied in the laboratory and computationally changes during the process of star and planet formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade, advancement of observational capabilities, specifically the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) and Spectro-Polarimetric High-contrast Exoplanet REsearch (SPHERE) instruments, alongside theoretical innovations like pebble accretion, have reshaped our understanding of planet formation and the physics of protoplanetary disks. Despite this progress, mysteries persist along the winded path of micrometer-sized dust, from the interstellar medium, through transport and growth in the protoplanetary disk, to becoming gravitationally bound bodies. This review outlines our current knowledge of dust evolution in circumstellar disks, yielding the following insights: Theoretical and laboratory studies have accurately predicted the growth of dust particles to sizes that are susceptible to accumulation through transport processes like radial drift and settling. Critical uncertainties in that process remain the level of turbulence, the threshold collision velocities at which dust growth stalls, and the evolution of dust porosity. Symmetric and asymmetric substructures are widespread. Dust traps appear to be solving several long-standing issues in planet formation models, and they are observationally consistent with being sites of active planetesimal formation. In some instances, planets have been identified as the causes behind substructures. This underlines the need to study earlier stages of disks to understand how planets can form so rapidly. In the future, better probes of the physical conditions in optically thick regions, including densities, turbulence strength, kinematics, and particle properties, will be essential for unraveling the physical processes at play. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The envelopes and disks that surround protostars reflect the initial conditions of star and planet formation and govern the assembly of stellar masses. Characterizing these structures requires observations that span the near-IR to centimeter wavelengths. Consequently, the past two decades have seen progress driven by numerous advances in observational facilities across this spectrum, including the Spitzer Space Telescope, Herschel Space Observatory, the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array, and a host of other ground-based interferometers and single-dish radio telescopes. Nearly all protostars have well-formed circumstellar disks that are likely to be rotationally supported; the ability to detect a disk around a protostar is more a question of spatial resolution rather than whether or not a disk is present. The disks around protostars have inherently higher millimeter/submillimeter luminosities as compared to disks around more-evolved pre-main-sequence stars, though there may be systematic variations between star-forming regions. The envelopes around protostars are inherently asymmetric, and streamers emphasize that mass flow through the envelopes to the disks may not be homogeneous. The current mass distribution of protostars may be impacted by selection bias given that it is skewed toward solar-mass protostars, which is inconsistent with the stellar initial mass function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dwarf irregular (dIrr) galaxies are among the most common type of galaxy in the Universe. They typically have gas-rich, low-surface-brightness, metal-poor, and relatively thick disks. Here, we summarize the current state of our knowledge of the interstellar medium (ISM), including atomic, molecular, and ionized gas, along with their dust properties and metals. We also discuss star-formation feedback, gas accretion, and mergers with other dwarfs that connect the ISM to the circumgalactic and intergalactic media. We highlight one of the most persistent mysteries: the nature of pervasive gas that is yet undetected as either molecular or cold hydrogen, the "dark gas." Some highlights include the following: Significant quantities of Hi are in far-outer gas disks. Cold Hi in dIrrs would be molecular in the Milky Way, making the chemical properties of star-forming clouds significantly different. Stellar feedback has a much larger impact in dIrrs than in spiral galaxies. The escape fraction of ionizing photons is significant, making dIrrs a plausible source for reionization in the early Universe. Observations suggest a significantly higher abundance of hydrogen (H2 or cold Hi) associated with CO in star-forming regions than that traced by the CO alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The onset of planet formation in protoplanetary disks is marked by the growth and crystallization of sub-micrometer-sized dust grains accompanied by dust settling toward the disk mid-plane. Here, we present infrared spectra of disks around brown dwarfs and brown dwarf candidates. We show that all three processes occur in such cool disks in a way similar or identical to that in disks around low- and intermediate-mass stars. These results indicate that the onset of planet formation extends to disks around brown dwarfs, suggesting that planet formation is a robust process occurring in most young circumstellar disks.

In this Letter we investigate the properties of advection-dominated accretion flows (ADAFs) fed by the evaporation of a Shakura-Sunyaev accretion disk (SSD). In our picture, the ADAF fills the central cavity evacuated by the SSD and extends beyond the transition radius into a coronal region. We find that, because of global angular momentum conservation, a significant fraction of the hot gas flows away from the black hole, forming a transsonic wind, unless the injection rate depends only weakly on radius (if r2sigma&d2;~r-xi, xi<1&solm0;2). The Bernoulli number of the inflowing gas is negative if the transition radius is less, similar100 Schwarzschild radii, so matter falling into the hole is gravitationally bound. The ratio of inflowing to outflowing mass is approximately 1/2, so in these solutions the accretion rate is of the same order as in standard ADAFs and much larger than in advection-dominated inflow/outflow models. The possible relevance of evaporation-fed solutions to accretion flows in black hole X-ray binaries is briefly discussed.

The formation of planets in our solar system encompassed various stages of accretion of planetesimals that formed in the protoplanetary disk within the first few million years at different distances to the sun. Their chemical diversity is reflected by compositionally variable meteorite groups from different parent bodies. There is general consensus that their formation location is roughly constrained by a dichotomy of nucleosynthetic isotope anomalies, relating carbonaceous (C) meteorite parent bodies to the outer protoplanetary disk and the non-carbonaceous (NC) parent bodies to an origin closer to the sun. It is a common idea, that in these inner parts of the protoplanetary disks, planetesimal accretion processes were faster. Testing such scenarios requires constraining formation ages of meteorite parent bodies. Although isotopic age dating can yield precise formation ages of individual mineral constituents of meteorites, such ages frequently represent mineral cooling ages that can postdate planetesimal formation by millions or tens of millions of years, depending on the cooling history of individual planetesimals at different depths. Nevertheless, such cooling ages provide a detailed thermal history which can be fitted by thermal evolution models that constrain the formation age of individual parent bodies. Here we apply state-of-the-art thermal evolution models to constrain planetesimal formation times particular in the outer solar system formation region of C meteorites. We infer a temporally distributed accretion of various parent bodies from < 0.6 Ma to ≈ 4 Ma after solar system formation, with 3.7 Ma and 2.5 - 2.75 Ma for the parent bodies of CR1-3 chondrites and the Flensburg carbonaceous chondrite, and < 0.6 and < 0.7 Ma for the parent bodies of differentiated achondrites NWA 6704 and NWA 011, respectively. This implies that accretion processes in the C reservoir started as early as in the NC reservoir and were operating throughout typical protoplanetary disk lifetimes, thereby producing differentiated parent bodies with carbonaceous compositions in addition to undifferentiated C chondrite parent bodies. The accretion times correlate inversely with the degree of the meteorites' alteration, metamorphism, or differentiation. The accretion times for the CM, CI, Ryugu, and Tafassite parent bodies of 3.8 Ma, 3.8 Ma, 1 - 3 Ma, and 1.1 Ma, respectively, fit well into this correlation in agreement with the thermal and alteration conditions suggested by these meteorites. Our results indicate that individual planetesimals formed rapidly (i.e., within < 1 Ma), however, distinct planetesimals formed recurrently throughout the total lifetime of the protoplanetary disk. Rapid individual formation is consistent with streaming instabilities assisted by gravitational collapse. However, obviously not the total dust inventory was consumed at early disk evolution stages, so there must have been some delay mechanisms, e.g. collisional destruction of precursor aggregates due to high impact velocities induced by radial drift phenomena. This counterbalance enabled late ( > 2 - 3 Ma) accretion of C planetesimals beyond the snow line which escaped severe planetesimal heating and volatile loss, hence, preserving their volatiles, especially water. Only this delayed formation of water-rich planetesimals allowed Earth to accrete sufficient water to become a habitable planet, preventing it from being a bone dry planet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Processes of coalescence and fragmentation are used to understand the time-evolution of the mass distribution of various systems and may result in a steady state or in stable deterministic or stochastic cycles. Motivated by applications in insurgency warfare we investigate coalescence-fragmentation systems. We begin with a simple model of size-biased coalescence accompanied by shattering into monomers. Depending on the parameters this model has an approximately power-law-distributed steady state or stochastic cycles of alternating gelation and shattering. We conduct stochastic simulations of this model and its generalizations to include different kernel types, accretion and erosion, and various distributions of non-shattering fragmentation. Our central aim is to explore the robustness of the steady state and gel-shatter stochastic cycles to these variations. We show that an approximate power-law steady state persists with the addition of accretion and erosion, and with partial rather than total shattering. However, broader distributions of fragment sizes typically vitiate both the power law steady state and gel-shatter cyclicity. This work clarifies features shown in coalescence/fragmentation model simulations and elucidates the relationship between the microscopic dynamics and observed phenomena in this widely applicable interdisciplinary model type. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polarized (sub)millimetre emission from dust grains in circumstellar disks was initially thought to be because of grains aligned with the magnetic field1,2. However, higher-resolution multi-wavelength observations3–5 and improved models6–10 found that this polarization is dominated by self-scattering at shorter wavelengths (for example, 870 µm) and by grains aligned with something other than magnetic fields at longer wavelengths (for example, 3 mm). Nevertheless, the polarization signal is expected to depend on the underlying substructure11–13, and observations until now have been unable to resolve polarization in multiple rings and gaps. HL Tau, a protoplanetary disk located 147.3 ± 0.5 pc away14, is the brightest class I or class II disk at millimetre–submillimetre wavelengths. Here we show deep, high-resolution polarization observations of HL Tau at 870 µm, resolving polarization in both the rings and the gaps. We find that the gaps have polarization angles with a notable azimuthal component and a higher polarization fraction than the rings. Our models show that the disk polarization is due to both scattering and emission from the aligned effectively prolate grains. The intrinsic polarization of aligned dust grains is probably more than 10%, which is much higher than that expected in low-resolution observations (about 1%). Asymmetries and dust features that are not seen in non-polarimetric observations are seen in the polarization observations.Deep, high-resolution polarization observations of HL Tau at 870 µm show gaps that have polarization angles with a notable azimuthal component and a higher polarization fraction than the rings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, we consider the potential of cometary impacts to deliver complex organic molecules and the prebiotic building blocks required for life to rocky exoplanets. Numerical experiments have demonstrated that for these molecules to survive, impacts at very low velocities are required. This work shows that for comets scattered from beyond the snow-line into the habitable zone, the minimum impact velocity is always lower for planets orbiting Solar-type stars than M-dwarfs. Using both an analytical model and numerical N-body simulations, we show that the lowest velocity impacts occur onto planets in tightly packed planetary systems around high-mass (i.e. Solar-mass) stars, enabling the intact delivery of complex organic molecules. Impacts onto planets around low-mass stars are found to be very sensitive to the planetary architecture, with the survival of complex prebiotic molecules potentially impossible in loosely packed systems. Rocky planets around M-dwarfs also suffer significantly more high velocity impacts, potentially posing unique challenges for life on these planets. In the scenario that cometary delivery is important for the origins of life, this study predicts the presence of biosignatures will be correlated with (i) decreasing planetary mass (i.e. escape velocity), (ii) increasing stellar-mass and (iii) decreasing planetary separation (i.e. exoplanets in tightly-packed systems). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current state and surface conditions of the Earth and its twin planet Venus are drastically different. Whether these differences are directly inherited from the earliest stages of planetary evolution, when the interior was molten, or arose later during the long-term evolution is still unclear. Yet, it is clear that water, its abundance, state, and distribution between the different planetary reservoirs, which are intimately related to the solidification and outgassing of the early magma ocean, are key components regarding past and present-day habitability, planetary evolution, and the different pathways leading to various surface conditions. In this chapter we start by reviewing the outcomes of the accretion sequence, with particular emphasis on the sources and timing of water delivery in light of available constraints, and the initial thermal state of Venus at the end of the main accretion. Then, we detail the processes at play during the early thermo-chemical evolution of molten terrestrial planets, and how they can affect the abundance and distribution of water within the different planetary reservoirs. Namely, we focus on the magma ocean cooling, solidification, and concurrent formation of the outgassed atmosphere. Accounting for the possible range of parameters for early Venus and based on the mechanisms and feedbacks described, we provide an overview of the likely evolutionary pathways leading to diverse surface conditions, from a temperate to a hellish early Venus. The implications of the resulting surface conditions and habitability are discussed in the context of the subsequent long-term interior and atmospheric evolution. Future research directions and observations are proposed to constrain the different scenarios in order to reconcile Venus' early evolution with its current state, while deciphering which path it followed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first generation of stars, often called Population III (or Pop III), form from metal-free primordial gas at redshifts z ∼ 30 and below. They dominate the cosmic star-formation history until z ∼ 15–20, at which point the formation of metal-enriched Population II stars takes over. We review current theoretical models for the formation, properties, and impact of Pop III stars and discuss existing and future observational constraints. Key takeaways from this review include the following: Primordial gas is highly susceptible to fragmentation and Pop III stars form as members of small clusters with a logarithmically flat mass function. Feedback from massive Pop III stars plays a central role in regulating subsequent star formation, but major uncertainties remain regarding its immediate impact. In extreme conditions, supermassive Pop III stars can form, reaching masses of several 105M⊙. Their remnants may be the seeds of the supermassive black holes observed in high-redshift quasars. Direct observations of Pop III stars in the early Universe remain extremely challenging. Indirect constraints from the global 21-cm signal or gravitational waves are more promising. Stellar archeological surveys allow us to constrain both the low-mass and the high-mass ends of the Pop III mass distribution. Observations suggest that most massive Pop III stars end their lives as core-collapse supernovae rather than as pair-instability supernovae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After decades of fast-paced technical advances, optical/infrared (O/IR) interferometry has seen a revolution in recent years: The GRAVITY instrument at the Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI) with four 8-m telescopes reaches thousand-times-fainter objects than possible with earlier interferometers, and the Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy array (CHARA) routinely offers up to 330-m baselines and aperture synthesis with six 1-m telescopes. The observed objects are fainter than 19 mag, the images have submilliarcsecond resolution, and the astrometry reaches microarcsecond precision. This led to breakthrough results on the Galactic Center, exoplanets, active galactic nuclei, young stellar objects, and stellar physics. Following a primer in interferometry, we summarize the advances that led to the performance boost of modern interferometers: Single-mode beam combiners now combine up to six telescopes, and image reconstruction software has advanced over earlier developments for radio interferometry. With a combination of large telescopes, adaptive optics (AO), fringe tracking, and especially dual-beam interferometry, GRAVITY has boosted the sensitivity by many orders of magnitude. Another order-of-magnitude improvement will come from laser guide star AO. In combination with large separation fringe tracking, O/IR interferometry will then provide complete sky coverage for observations in the Galactic plane and substantial coverage for extragalactic targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Planets form in disks of gas and dust around young stars. The disk molecular reservoirs and their chemical evolution affect all aspects of planet formation, from the coagulation of dust grains into pebbles to the elemental and molecular compositions of the mature planet. Disk chemistry also enables unique probes of disk structures and dynamics, including those directly linked to ongoing planet formation. We review the protoplanetary disk chemistry of the volatile elements H, O, C, N, S, and P; the associated observational and theoretical methods; and the links between disk and planet chemical compositions. Three takeaways from this review are: The disk chemical composition, including the organic reservoirs, is set by both inheritance and in situ chemistry. Disk gas and solid O/C/N/H elemental ratios often deviate from stellar values due to a combination of condensation of molecular carriers, chemistry, and dynamics. Chemical, physical, and dynamical processes in disks are closely linked, which complicates disk chemistry modeling, but these links also present an opportunity to develop chemical probes of different aspects of disk evolution and planet formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The terrestrial planets formed by accretion of asteroid-like objects within the inner solar system's protoplanetary disk. Previous works have found that forming a small-mass Mars requires the disk to contain little mass beyond ~ 1.5 au (i.e., the disk mass was concentrated within this boundary). The asteroid belt also holds crucial information about the origin of such a narrow disk. Several scenarios may produce a narrow disk. However, simultaneously replicating the four terrestrial planets and the inner solar system properties remains elusive. Here, we found that chaotic excitation of disk objects generated by a near-resonant configuration of Jupiter–Saturn can create a narrow disk, allowing the formation of the terrestrial planets and the asteroid belt. Our simulations showed that this mechanism could typically deplete a massive disk beyond ~ 1.5 au on a 5–10 Myr timescale. The resulting terrestrial systems reproduced the current orbits and masses of Venus, Earth and Mars. Adding an inner region disk component within ~ 0.8–0.9 au allowed several terrestrial systems to simultaneously form analogues of the four terrestrial planets. Our terrestrial systems also frequently satisfied additional constraints: Moon-forming giant impacts occurring after a median ~ 30–55 Myr, late impactors represented by disk objects formed within 2 au, and effective water delivery during the first 10–20 Myr of Earth's formation. Finally, our model asteroid belt explained the asteroid belt's orbital structure, small mass and taxonomy (S-, C- and D/P-types). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water is a fundamental molecule in the star and planet formation process, essential for catalysing the growth of solid material and the formation of planetesimals within disks1,2. However, the water snowline and the HDO:H2O ratio within proto-planetary disks have not been well characterized because water only sublimates at roughly 160 K (ref. 3), meaning that most water is frozen out onto dust grains and that the water snowline radii are less than 10 AU (astronomical units)4,5. The sun-like protostar V883 Ori (M* = 1.3 M⊙)6 is undergoing an accretion burst7, increasing its luminosity to roughly 200 L⊙ (ref. 8), and previous observations suggested that its water snowline is 40–120 AU in radius6,9,10. Here we report the direct detection of gas phase water (HDO and H 2 18 O ) from the disk of V883 Ori. We measure a midplane water snowline radius of approximately 80 AU, comparable to the scale of the Kuiper Belt, and detect water out to a radius of roughly 160 AU. We then measure the HDO:H2O ratio of the disk to be (2.26 ± 0.63) × 10−3. This ratio is comparable to those of protostellar envelopes and comets, and exceeds that of Earth’s oceans by 3.1σ. We conclude that disks directly inherit water from the star-forming cloud and this water becomes incorporated into large icy bodies, such as comets, without substantial chemical alteration.Direct detection of gas phase water from the disk of V883 Ori indicates that disks directly inherit water from the star-forming cloud that becomes incorporated into large icy bodies without notable chemical alteration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Collisions between granular aggregates influence the size distribution of dust clouds. Granular aggregates may possess non-spherical shapes as a result of, for instance, previous collision processes. Here, we study aggregate collisions using a granular mechanics simulation code. Collisions between spherical aggregates are compared to collisions of ellipsoidal aggregates of equal mass. As the most prominent result, we find that the growth velocity, i.e., the velocity above which the post-collision aggregates are smaller than before collision, is generally reduced for ellipsoidal aggregates. The reason hereto lies in the less compact structure of ellipsoids which allows for a larger degree of fragmentation in a 'rim peel-off' mechanism. On the other hand, relative fragment distributions are only little influenced by aggregate shape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herbig Ae/Be stars are young contracting stars on the radiative track in the HR diagram on their way to the main sequence. These stars provide a valuable link between high and low mass stars. Here we review the progress that has been made in our understanding of these fascinating objects and their disks since the last major review on this topic published in 1998. We begin with a general overview of these stars and their properties. We then discuss the accretion of circumstellar material onto these stars. Next we discuss the dust and gas properties of the circumstellar disk before exploring the evidence for planet formation in these disks. We conclude with a brief discussion of future prospects for deepening our understanding of these sources and propose a new working definition of Herbig Ae/Be stars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe the AMBITION project, a mission to return the first-ever cryogenically-stored sample of a cometary nucleus, that has been proposed for the ESA Science Programme Voyage 2050. Comets are the leftover building blocks of giant planet cores and other planetary bodies, and fingerprints of Solar System's formation processes. We summarise some of the most important questions still open in cometary science and Solar System formation after the successful Rosetta mission. We show that many of these scientific questions require sample analysis using techniques that are only possible in laboratories on Earth. We summarize measurements, instrumentation and mission scenarios that can address these questions. We emphasize the need for returning a sample collected at depth or, still more challenging, at cryogenic temperatures while preserving the stratigraphy of the comet nucleus surface layers. We provide requirements for the next generation of landers, for cryogenic sample acquisition and storage during the return to Earth. Rendezvous missions to the main belt comets and Centaurs, expanding our knowledge by exploring new classes of comets, are also discussed. The AMBITION project is discussed in the international context of comet and asteroid space exploration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volatile elements such as hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen are essential ingredients to build habitable worlds like Earth, but their origin and evolution on terrestrial planets remain highly debated. Here we discuss the processes that distributed these elements throughout the early Solar System and how they then became incorporated into planetary building blocks. Volatiles on Earth and the other terrestrial planets appear to have been heterogeneously sourced from different Solar System reservoirs. The sources of planetary volatiles and the timing at which they were accreted to growing planets probably play a crucial role in controlling planet habitability.The processes that distributed life-forming volatile elements throughout the early Solar System and how they then became incorporated into planetary building blocks are reviewed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low-energy cosmic rays (up to the GeV energy domain) play a crucial role in the physics and chemistry of the densest phase of the interstellar medium. Unlike interstellar ionising radiation, they can penetrate large column densities of gas, and reach molecular cloud cores. By maintaining there a small but not negligible gas ionisation fraction, they dictate the coupling between the plasma and the magnetic field, which in turn affects the dynamical evolution of clouds and impacts on the process of star and planet formation. The cosmic-ray ionisation of molecular hydrogen in interstellar clouds also drives the rich interstellar chemistry revealed by observations of spectral lines in a broad region of the electromagnetic spectrum, spanning from the submillimetre to the visual band. Some recent developments in various branches of astrophysics provide us with an unprecedented view on low-energy cosmic rays. Accurate measurements and constraints on the intensity of such particles are now available both for the very local interstellar medium and for distant interstellar clouds. The interpretation of these recent data is currently debated, and the emerging picture calls for a reassessment of the scenario invoked to describe the origin and/or the transport of low-energy cosmic rays in the Galaxy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atmospheric escape is an essential process that affects the evolution of the proto-atmosphere. The atmospheric escape of early terrestrial planets was extremely rapid compared with the current scenarios, and the main atmospheric escape modes were also quite different. During the dissipation of the nebula disk, the primordial atmosphere experienced a brief but violent "boiling" escape, in which most of the primordial atmosphere was lost. After the nebula disk dissipates, hydrodynamic escape and impact erosion are the two most important mass-loss mechanisms for the proto-atmosphere. Hydrodynamic escape is a rapid atmospheric escape process caused by strong solar radiation, while impact erosion refers to the process in which small-large or giant impacts erode the proto-atmosphere. In the early solar system, there were other escape mechanisms, such as non-thermodynamic escape and Jeans escape, but it is generally believed that these mechanisms have relatively little impact. Here we systematically introduce the above-mentioned atmospheric escape mechanisms and then make some suggestions for the existing problems and future research for atmospheric escape models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We performed an experiment under long-term microgravity conditions aboard the International Space Station (ISS) to obtain information on the energetics and experimental constraints required for the formation of chondrules in the solar nebula by 'nebular lightning'. As a simplified model system, we exposed porous forsterite (Mg 2 SiO 4 ) dust particles to high-energetic arc discharges. The characterization of the samples after their return by synchrotron microtomography and scanning electron microscopy revealed that aggregates had formed, consisting of several fused Mg 2 SiO 4 particles. The partial melting and fusing of Mg 2 SiO 4 dust particles under microgravity conditions leads to a strong reduction of their porosity. The experimental outcomes vary strongly in their appearance from small spherical melt-droplets ( ∅ ≈ 90 µm) to bigger and irregularly shaped aggregates ( ∅ ≈ 350 µm). Our results provided new constraints with respect to energetic aspects of chondrule formation and a roadmap for future and more complex experiments on Earth and in microgravity conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate the feasibility of ancillary target observations with ESA's Ariel mission, we compiled a list of potentially interesting young stars: FUors, systems harbouring extreme debris discs and a larger sample of young stellar objects showing strong near/mid-infrared excess. These objects can be observed as additional targets in the waiting times between the scheduled exoplanet transit and occultation observations. After analyzing the schedule for Ariel an algorithm was constructed to find the optimal target to be observed in each gap. The selection was mainly based on the slew and stabilization time needed to observe the selected YSO, but it also incorporated the scientific importance of the targets and whether they have already been sufficiently measured. After acquiring an adequately large sample of simulation data, it was concluded that approximately 99.2% of the available – at least one hour long – gaps could be used effectively. With an average slewing and stabilization time of about 16.7 minutes between scheduled exoplanet transits and ancillary targets, this corresponds to an additional 2881 ± 56 hours of active data gathering. When this additional time is used to observe our selected 200 ancillary targets, a typical signal-to-noise ratio of ∼ 1 0 4 can be achieved along the whole spectral window covered by Ariel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recently adopted Ariel ESA mission will measure the atmospheric composition of a large number of exoplanets. This information will then be used to better constrain planetary bulk compositions. While the connection between the composition of a planetary atmosphere and the bulk interior is still being investigated, the combination of the atmospheric composition with the measured mass and radius of exoplanets will push the field of exoplanet characterisation to the next level, and provide new insights of the nature of planets in our galaxy. In this white paper, we outline the ongoing activities of the interior working group of the Ariel mission, and list the desirable theoretical developments as well as the challenges in linking planetary atmospheres, bulk composition and interior structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of the Ariel space mission is to observe a large and diversified population of transiting planets around a range of host star types to collect information on their atmospheric composition. The planetary bulk and atmospheric compositions bear the marks of the way the planets formed: Ariel's observations will therefore provide an unprecedented wealth of data to advance our understanding of planet formation in our Galaxy. A number of environmental and evolutionary factors, however, can affect the final atmospheric composition. Here we provide a concise overview of which factors and effects of the star and planet formation processes can shape the atmospheric compositions that will be observed by Ariel, and highlight how Ariel's characteristics make this mission optimally suited to address this very complex problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We numerically model the collapse of magnetic rotating protostellar clouds with mass of 10 M⊙. The simulations are carried out with the help of 2D MHD code Enlil. The structure of the cloud at the isothermal stage of the collapse is investigated for the cases of weak, moderate, and strong initial magnetic field. Simulations reveal the universal hierarchical structure of collapsing protostellar clouds, consisting of the flattened envelope with the qausi-magnetostatc disk inside and the first core in its center. The size of the primary disk increases with the initial magnetic energy of the cloud. The magnetic braking efficiently transports the angular momentum from the primary disk into the envelope in the case, when the initial magnetic energy of the cloud is more than 20% of its gravitational energy. The intensity of the outflows launched from the region near the boundary of the first core increases with initial magnetic energy. The "dead" zone with small ionization fraction, x 10 11 < -, forms inside the first hydrostatic core and at the base of the outflow. Ohmic dissipation and ambipolar diffusion determine conditions for further formation of the protostellar disk in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dynamics of magnetic flux tubes (MFTs) in the accretion disk of typical Herbig Ae/Be star (HAeBeS) with fossil large-scale magnetic field is modeled taking into account the buoyant and drag forces, radiative heat exchange with the surrounding gas, and the magnetic field of the disk. The structure of the disk is simulated using our magnetohydrodynamic model, taking into account the heating of the surface layers of the disk with the stellar radiation. The simulations show that MFTs periodically rise from the innermost region of the disk with speeds up to 10-12 km s-1. MFTs experience decaying magnetic oscillations under the action of the external magnetic field near the disk's surface. The oscillation period increases with distance from the star and initial plasma beta of the MFT, ranging from several hours at r 0.012 au = up to several months at r 1 au =. The oscillations are characterized by pulsations of the MFT's characteristics including its temperature. We argue that the oscillations can produce observed IR-variability of HAeBeSs, which would be more intense than in the case of T Tauri stars, since the disks of HAeBeSs are hotter, denser, and have stronger magnetic field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]