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Rural water systems in Africa have room to improve water quality monitoring. However, the most cost-effective approach for microbial water testing remains uncertain. This study compared the cost per E. coli test (membrane filtration) of four approaches representing different levels of centralization: (i) one centralized laboratory serving all water systems, (ii) a mobile laboratory serving all systems, (iii) multiple semi-centralized laboratories serving clusters of systems, and (iv) decentralized analysis at each system. We employed Monte Carlo analyses to model the costs of these approaches in three real-world contexts in Ghana and Uganda and in hypothetical simulations capturing various conditions across rural Africa. Centralized testing was the lowest cost in two real-world settings and the widest variety of simulations, especially those with water systems close to a central laboratory (<36 km). Semi-centralized testing was the lowest cost in one real-world setting and in simulations with clustered water systems and intermediate sampling frequencies (1-2 monthly samples per system). The mobile lab was the lowest cost in the fewest simulations, requiring few systems and infrequent sampling. Decentralized testing was cost-effective for remote systems and frequent sampling, but only if sampling did not require a dedicated vehicle. Alternative low-cost testing methods could make decentralized testing more competitive.

Background: According to the World Health Organization/United Nations International Children's Fund Joint Monitoring Program, 494  million people practice open defecation globally. After achieving open defecation-free (ODF) status through efforts such as Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS), communities (particularly vulnerable households) may revert to open defecation, especially when toilet collapse is common and durable toilets are unaffordable. Accordingly, there is increasing interest in pro-poor sanitation subsidies., Objectives: This study determined the impacts of a pro-poor sanitation subsidy program on sanitation conditions among the most vulnerable households and others in the community., Methods: In 109 post-ODF communities in Northern Ghana, we conducted a cluster randomized controlled trial to evaluate a pro-poor subsidy program that identified the most vulnerable households through community consultation to receive vouchers for durable toilet substructures. We surveyed households to assess toilet coverage, quality, and use before and after the intervention and tracked program costs., Results: Overall, sanitation conditions deteriorated substantially from baseline to endline (average of 21 months). In control communities (not receiving the pro-poor subsidy), open defecation increased from 25% (baseline) to 69% (endline). The subsidy intervention attenuated this deterioration (open defecation increased from 25% to only 54% in subsidy communities), with the greatest impacts among voucher-eligible households. Noneligible households in compounds with subsidized toilets also exhibited lower open defecation levels owing to in-compound sharing (common in this context). CLTS followed by the subsidy program would benefit more households than CLTS alone but would cost 21-37% more per household that no longer practiced open defecation or upgraded to a durable toilet., Discussion: Sanitation declines, often due to toilet collapse, suggest a need for approaches beyond CLTS alone. This subsidy program attenuated declines, but durable toilets likely remained unaffordable for noneligible households. Targeting criteria more closely aligned with sanitation inequities, such as household heads who are female or did not complete primary education, may help to generate greater and more sustainable impacts in Northern Ghana and, potentially, other contexts facing toilet collapse and limited market access. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP10443.

Community-led total sanitation (CLTS) is a widely used approach to reduce open defecation in rural areas of low-income countries. Following CLTS programs, communities are designated as open defecation free (ODF) when household-level toilet coverage reaches the threshold specified by national guidelines (e.g., 80% in Ghana). However, because sanitation conditions are rarely monitored after communities are declared ODF, the ability of CLTS to generate lasting reductions in open defecation is poorly understood. In this study, we examined the extent to which levels of toilet ownership and use were sustained in 109 communities in rural Northern Ghana up to two and a half years after they had obtained ODF status. We found that the majority of communities (75%) did not meet Ghana's ODF requirements. Over a third of households had either never owned (16%) or no longer owned (24%) a functional toilet, and 25% reported practicing open defecation regularly. Toilet pit and superstructure collapse were the primary causes of reversion to open defecation. Multivariate regression analysis indicated that communities had higher toilet coverage when they were located further from major roads, were not located on rocky soil, reported having a system of fines to punish open defecation, and when less time had elapsed since ODF status achievement. Households were more likely to own a functional toilet if they were larger, wealthier, had a male household head who had not completed primary education, had no children under the age of five, and benefitted from the national Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) program. Wealthier households were also more likely to use a toilet for defecation and to rebuild their toilet when it collapsed. Our findings suggest that interventions that address toilet collapse and the difficulty of rebuilding, particularly among the poorest and most vulnerable households, will improve the longevity of CLTS-driven sanitation improvements in rural Ghana., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. Though one of the authors [PAA] is affiliated with NHance Development Partners Ltd, this company did not have any role in this study. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS One policies on sharing data and materials.

Introduction: Dispatchers should be trained to interrogate bystanders with strict protocols to elicit information focused on recognizing cardiac arrest and should provide telephone cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) instructions in all cases of suspected cardiac arrest. While an objective assessment of training outcomes is needed, there is no performance assessment scale for simulated dispatcher-assisted CPR., Study Objective: The aim of the study was to create a valid and reliable performance assessment scale for simulated dispatcher-assisted CPR., Methods: In this prospective, randomized, controlled, multi-centric simulation-based trial (registration number TCTR20210130002), the scale was developed according to the European Resuscitation Council (ERC) and American Heart Association (AHA) Guidelines 2015 and revised by experts. The performance of 48 dispatchers' telephone-CPR and of 48 bystanders carrying out CPR on a manikin was assessed by two independent evaluators using the scale and using a SkillReporter (PC) software to provide CPR objective performance. Continuous variables were described as mean (SD) and categorical variables as numbers and percentage (%). Comparative analysis between two groups used a Student t-test or a non-parametric test of Mann-Whitney. The internal structure of the scale was evaluated, including internal consistency using α Cronbach coefficient, and reproducibility using intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and linear correlation coefficient (R2) calculation., Results: The scale included three different parts: two sections for dispatchers' (32 items) and bystanders' CPR performance (15 items) assessment, and a third part recording times. There was excellent internal consistency (α Cronbach coefficient = 0.77) and reproducibility (ICC = 0.93; R² = 0.86). For dispatchers' performance assessment, α Cronbach coefficient = 0.76; ICC = 0.91; R2 = 0.84. For bystanders' performance assessment, α Cronbach coefficient = 0.75; ICC = 0.93; R2 = 0.87. Reproducibility was excellent for nine items, good for 19 items, and moderate for 19 items. No item had poor reproducibility. There was no significant difference between dispatch doctors' and medical dispatch assistants' performances (33.0 [SD = 4.7] versus 32.3 [SD = 3.2] out of 52, respectively; P = .70) or between trained and untrained bystanders to follow the instructions (14.3 [SD = 2.0] versus 13.9 [SD = 1.8], respectively; P = .64). Objective performance (%) was significantly higher for trained bystanders than for untrained bystanders (67.4 [SD = 14.5] versus 50.6 [SD = 19.3], respectively; P = .03)., Conclusion: The scale was valid and reliable to assess performance for simulated dispatcher-assisted CPR. To the authors' knowledge, no other valid performance tool currently exists. It could be used in simulated telephone-CPR training programs to improve performance.

Unsafe sanitation is an increasing public health concern for rapidly expanding cities in low-income countries. Understanding household demand for improved sanitation infrastructure is critical for planning effective sanitation investments. In this study, we compared the stated and revealed willingness to pay (WTP) for high-quality, pour-flush latrines among households in low-income areas in the city of Nakuru, Kenya. We found that stated WTP for high-quality, pour-flush latrines was much lower than market prices: less than 5% of households were willing to pay the full costs, which we estimated between 87,100-82,900 Kenyan Shillings (KES), or 871-829 USD. In addition, we found large discrepancies between stated and revealed WTP. For example, 90% of households stated that they would be willing to pay a discounted amount of 10,000 KES (100 USD) for a high-quality, pour-flush latrine, but only 10% of households redeemed vouchers at this price point (paid via six installment payments). Households reported that financial constraints (i.e., lack of cash, other spending priorities) were the main barriers to voucher redemption, even at highly discounted prices. Our results emphasize the importance of financial interventions that address the sizable gaps between the costs of sanitation products and customer demand among low-income populations.

Improving the effectiveness of rural sanitation interventions is critical for meeting the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals and improving public health. Community-led total sanitation (CLTS) is the most widely used rural sanitation intervention globally; however, evidence shows that CLTS does not work equally well everywhere. Contextual factors outside the control of implementers may partially determine CLTS outcomes, although the extent of these influences is poorly understood. In this study, we investigate the extent to which 18 contextual factors from readily available datasets can help predict the achievement and sustainability of open-defecation-free (ODF) status in Cambodia, Ghana, Liberia, and Zambia. Using multilevel logistic regressions, we found that the predictors of CLTS performance varied between countries, with the exception of small community size. Accessibility and literacy levels were correlated with CLTS outcomes, but the direction of correlation differed between countries. To translate findings into practical guidance for CLTS implementers, we used classification and regression trees to identify a "split point" for each contextual factor significantly associated with ODF achievement. We also identified the combinations of factors conducive to a minimum of 50% ODF achievement. This study demonstrates that publicly available, high-resolution datasets on accessibility, socioeconomic, and environmental factors can be leveraged to target CLTS activities to the most favorable contexts.

Global sustainable development goals call for universal access to safely managed sanitation by 2030. Here, we demonstrate methods to estimate the financial requirements for meeting this commitment in urban settings of low-income countries. Our methods considered two financial requirements: (i) the subsidies needed to bridge the gap between the willingness-to-pay of low-income households and actual market prices of toilets and emptying services and (ii) the amounts needed to expand the municipal waste management infrastructure for unserved populations. We applied our methods in five cities- Kisumu, Malindi, Nakuru in Kenya; Kumasi in Ghana; and Rangpur in Bangladesh and compared three to five sanitation approaches in each city. We collected detailed cost data on the sanitation infrastructure, products, and services from 76 key informants across the five cities, and we surveyed a total of 2381 low-income households to estimate willingness-to-pay. We found that the total financial requirements for achieving universal sanitation in the next 10 years and their breakdown between household subsidies and municipal infrastructure varied greatly between sanitation approaches. Across our study cities, sewerage was the costliest approach (total financial requirements of 16-24 USD/person/year), followed by container-based sanitation (10-17 USD/person/year), onsite sanitation (2-14 USD/person/year), and mini-sewers connecting several toilets to communal septic tanks (3-5 USD/person/year). Further applications of our methods can guide sanitation planning in other cities.

Information about microbial water quality is critical for managing water safety and protecting public health. In low-income countries, monitoring all drinking water supplies is impractical because financial resources and capacity are insufficient. Data sets derived from satellite imagery, census, and hydrological models provide an opportunity to examine relationships between a suite of environmental risk factors and microbial water quality over large geographical scales. We investigated the relationships between groundwater fecal contamination and different environmental parameters in Uganda and Bangladesh. In Uganda, groundwater contamination was associated with high population density ( p < 0.001; OR = 1.27), high cropland coverage ( p < 0.001; OR = 1.47), high average monthly precipitation ( p < 0.001; OR = 1.14), and high surface runoff ( p < 0.001; OR = 1.37), while low groundwater contamination was more likely in areas further from cities ( p < 0.001; OR = 0.66) and with higher forest coverage ( p < 0.001; OR = 0.70). In Bangladesh, contamination was associated with higher weekly precipitation ( p < 0.001; OR = 1.44) and higher livestock density (p = 0.05; OR = 1.11), while low contamination was associated with low forest coverage ( p < 0.001; OR = 1.23) and high cropland coverage ( p < 0.001; OR = 0.80). We developed a groundwater contamination index for each country to help decision-makers identify areas where groundwater is most prone to fecal contamination and prioritize monitoring activities. Our approach demonstrates how to harness satellite-derived data to guide water safety management.

Improving sanitation conditions in low-income communities is a major challenge for rapidly growing cities of the developing world. The expenses and logistical difficulties of extending sewerage infrastructure have focused increasing attention on the requirements for safe and cost-effective fecal sludge management services. These services, which are primarily provided by the private sector, include the collection and treatment of fecal waste from latrine pits and septic tanks. To determine the degree to which market forces can promote safe fecal sludge removal in low-income neighborhoods of Kisumu, Kenya, we compared household willingness-to-pay for formal pit emptying with the prices charged by service providers. Through surveys of 942 households and a real-money voucher trial with 646 households, we found that stated and revealed demand for formal emptying services were both low, with less than 20% of households willing to pay full market prices. Our results suggest that improving fecal sludge management in these neighborhoods via the private sector will require large subsides, ranging from 55.1-81.4 million KES (551,000-814,000 USD) annually, to address the gap between willingness-to-pay and market prices. Raising and administering subsidies of this scale will require the development of a city-wide sanitation master plan that includes investment, management, and regulatory procedures for fecal sludge management. In the absence of government investment and coordination, it is unlikely that the private sector will address safe sanitation needs in low-income areas of Kisumu., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

In 2015, Ghana launched the National Drinking Water Quality Management Framework (NDWQMF) to promote a risk-based approach to water quality through water safety plans (WSPs). This study uses a narrative review to synthesize WSP implementation progress in Ghana, identify gaps in practice, and provide recommendations for enhanced effectiveness and scale-up. Findings show limited uptake: only three of 88 urban water supply systems have adopted WSPs, while in the rural sector, the Community Water and Sanitation Agency has implemented WSPs in 177 of 1,022 small-town systems, and the safe water network in 46 systems. However, community-managed water systems overseen by local governments are yet to initiate WSPs. For those that have begun, significant documentation and implementation gaps are noted, including incomplete hazard listings, insufficient improvement plans, and absent standard operating procedures. To strengthen WSP implementation, this study emphasizes the need for robust regulatory mechanisms across urban and rural sectors, along with tailored guidelines and support structures to enable effective WSP adoption across diverse water systems., Competing Interests: The authors declare there is no conflict., (© 2024 The Authors This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY 4.0), which permits copying, adaptation and redistribution, provided the original work is properly cited (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).)

Background: Water quality testing is critical for guiding water safety management and ensuring public health. In many settings, however, water suppliers and surveillance agencies do not meet regulatory requirements for testing frequencies. This study examines the conditions that promote successful water quality monitoring in Africa, with the goal of providing evidence for strengthening regulated water quality testing programs., Methods and Findings: We compared monitoring programs among 26 regulated water suppliers and surveillance agencies across six African countries. These institutions submitted monthly water quality testing results over 18 months. We also collected qualitative data on the conditions that influenced testing performance via approximately 821 h of semi-structured interviews and observations. Based on our qualitative data, we developed the Water Capacity Rating Diagnostic (WaterCaRD) to establish a scoring framework for evaluating the effects of the following conditions on testing performance: accountability, staffing, program structure, finances, and equipment & services. We summarized the qualitative data into case studies for each of the 26 institutions and then used the case studies to score the institutions against the conditions captured in WaterCaRD. Subsequently, we applied fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA) to compare these scores against performance outcomes for water quality testing. We defined the performance outcomes as the proportion of testing Targets Achieved (outcome 1) and Testing Consistency (outcome 2) based on the monthly number of microbial water quality tests conducted by each institution. Our analysis identified motivation & leadership, knowledge, staff retention, and transport as institutional conditions that were necessary for achieving monitoring targets. In addition, equipment, procurement, infrastructure, and enforcement contributed to the pathways that resulted in strong monitoring performance., Conclusions: Our identification of institutional commitment, comprising motivation & leadership, knowledge, and staff retention, as a key driver of monitoring performance was not surprising: in weak regulatory environments, individuals and their motivations take-on greater importance in determining institutional and programmatic outcomes. Nevertheless, efforts to build data collection capacity in low-resource settings largely focus on supply-side interventions: the provision of infrastructure, equipment, and training sessions. Our results indicate that these interventions will continue to have limited long-term impacts and sustainability without complementary strategies for motivating or incentivizing water supply and surveillance agency managers to achieve testing goals. More broadly, our research demonstrates both an experimental approach for diagnosing the systems that underlie service provision and an analytical strategy for identifying appropriate interventions., (Copyright © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier GmbH.. All rights reserved.)

This study investigated the effectiveness of Water Safety Plans (WSP) implemented in 99 water supply systems across 12 countries in the Asia-Pacific region. An impact assessment methodology including 36 indicators was developed based on a conceptual framework proposed by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) and before/after data were collected between November 2014 and June 2016. WSPs were associated with infrastructure improvements at the vast majority (82) of participating sites and to increased financial support at 37 sites. In addition, significant changes were observed in operations and management practices, number of water safety-related meetings, unaccounted-for water, water quality testing activities, and monitoring of consumer satisfaction. However, the study also revealed challenges in the implementation of WSPs, including financial constraints and insufficient capacity. Finally, this study provided an opportunity to test the impact assessment methodology itself, and a series of recommendations are made to improve the approach (indicators, study design, data collection methods) for evaluating WSPs.

Shallow groundwater containing toxic concentrations of arsenic is the primary source of drinking water for millions of households in rural West Bengal, India. Often, this water also contains unpleasant levels of iron and non-negligible fecal contamination. Alternatives to shallow groundwater are increasingly available, including government-built deep tubewells, water purchased from independent providers, municipal piped water, and household filters. We conducted a survey of 501 households in Murshidabad district in 2014 to explore what influenced the use of available alternatives. Socioeconomic status and the perceived likelihood of gastrointestinal (GI) illness (which was associated with dissatisfaction with iron in groundwater) were the primary determinants of the use of alternatives. Arsenic knowledge was limited. The choice amongst alternatives was influenced by economic, social, and aesthetic factors, but not by health risk perceptions. The use of purchased water was rarely exclusive and was strongly associated with socioeconomic status, suggesting that this form of market-based water provision does not ensure universal access. Demand for purchased water appeared to decrease significantly shortly after free piped water became available at public taps. Our results suggest that arsenic mitigation interventions that also address co-occurring water problems (iron, GI illness) could be more effective than a focus on arsenic alone.

Microbial water quality monitoring is crucial for managing water resources and protecting public health. However, institutional testing activities in sub-Saharan Africa are currently limited. Because the economics of water quality testing are poorly understood, the extent to which cost may be a barrier to monitoring in different settings is unclear. This study used cost data from 18 African monitoring institutions (piped water suppliers and health surveillance agencies in six countries) and estimates of water supply type coverage from 15 countries to assess the annual financial requirements for microbial water testing at both national and regional levels, using World Health Organization recommendations for sampling frequency. We found that a microbial water quality test costs 21.0 ± 11.3 USD, on average, including consumables, equipment, labor, and logistics, which is higher than previously calculated. Our annual cost estimates for microbial monitoring of piped supplies and improved point sources ranged between 8 000 USD for Equatorial Guinea and 1.9 million USD for Ethiopia, depending primarily on the population served but also on the distribution of piped water system sizes. A comparison with current national water and sanitation budgets showed that the cost of implementing prescribed testing levels represents a relatively modest proportion of existing budgets (<2%). At the regional level, we estimated that monitoring the microbial quality of all improved water sources in sub-Saharan Africa would cost 16.0 million USD per year, which is minimal in comparison to the projected annual capital costs of achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6.1 of safe water for all (14.8 billion USD).

Iron electrocoagulation (Fe-EC) has been shown to effectively remove arsenic from contaminated groundwater at low cost and has the potential to improve access to safe drinking water for millions of people. Understanding how operating conditions, such as the Fe dosage rate and the O 2 recharge rate, affect arsenic removal at different pH values is crucial to maximize the performance of Fe-EC under economic constraints. In this work, we improved upon an existing computational model to investigate the combined effects of pH, Fe dosage rate, and O 2 recharge rate on arsenic removal in Fe-EC. We showed that the impact of the Fe dosage rate strongly depends on pH and on the O 2 recharge rate, which has important practical implications. We identified the process limiting arsenic removal (As(III) oxidation versus As(V) adsorption) at different pH values, which allowed us to interpret the effect of operating conditions on Fe-EC performance. Finally, we assessed the robustness of the trends predicted by the model, which assumes a constant pH, against lab experiments reproducing more realistic conditions where pH is allowed to drift during treatment as a result of equilibration with atmospheric CO 2 . Our results provide a nuanced understanding of how operating conditions impact arsenic removal by Fe-EC and can inform decisions regarding the operation of this technology in a range of groundwaters., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Globally, 200 million people drink groundwater contaminated with fluoride concentrations exceeding the World Health Organization's recommended level (WHO-MCL = 1.5 mg F - /L). This study investigates the use of minimally processed (dried/milled) bauxite ore as an inexpensive adsorbent for remediating fluoride-contaminated groundwater in resource-constrained areas. Adsorption experiments in synthetic groundwater using bauxites from Guinea, Ghana, U.S., and India as single-use batch dispersive media demonstrated that doses of ∼10-23 g/L could effectively remediate 10 mg F - /L. To elucidate factors governing fluoride removal, bauxites were characterized using X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction, gas-sorption analysis, and adsorption isotherms/envelopes. All ores contained gibbsite, had comparable surface areas (∼14-17 m 2 /g), had similar intrinsic affinities and capacities for fluoride, and did not leach harmful ions into product water. Fluoride uptake on bauxite -primarily through ion-exchange- was strongly pH-dependent, with highest removal occurring at pH 5.0-6.0. Dissolution of CaCO 3 , present in trace amounts in India bauxite, significantly hindered fluoride removal by increasing solution pH. We also showed that fluoride remediation with the best-performing Guinea bauxite was ∼23-33 times less expensive than with activated alumina. Overall, our results suggest that bauxite could be an affordable fluoride-remediation adsorbent with the potential to improve access to drinking water for millions living in developing countries.

Iron electrocoagulation (Fe-EC) is a low-cost process in which Fe(II) generated from an Fe(0) anode reacts with dissolved O2 to form (1) Fe(III) precipitates with an affinity for bacterial cell walls and (2) bactericidal reactive oxidants. Previous work suggests that Fe-EC is a promising treatment option for groundwater containing arsenic and bacterial contamination. However, the mechanisms of bacteria attenuation and the impact of major groundwater ions are not well understood. In this work, using the model indicator Escherichia coli (E. coli), we show that physical removal via enmeshment in EC precipitate flocs is the primary process of bacteria attenuation in the presence of HCO3(-), which significantly inhibits inactivation, possibly due to a reduction in the lifetime of reactive oxidants. We demonstrate that the adhesion of EC precipitates to cell walls, which results in bacteria encapsulation in flocs, is driven primarily by interactions between EC precipitates and phosphate functional groups on bacteria surfaces. In single solute electrolytes, both P (0.4 mM) and Ca/Mg (1-13 mM) inhibited the adhesion of EC precipitates to bacterial cell walls, whereas Si (0.4 mM) and ionic strength (2-200 mM) did not impact E. coli attenuation. Interestingly, P (0.4 mM) did not affect E. coli attenuation in electrolytes containing Ca/Mg, consistent with bivalent cation bridging between bacterial phosphate groups and inorganic P sorbed to EC precipitates. Finally, we found that EC precipitate adhesion is largely independent of cell wall composition, consistent with comparable densities of phosphate functional groups on Gram-positive and Gram-negative cells. Our results are critical to predict the performance of Fe-EC to eliminate bacterial contaminants from waters with diverse chemical compositions., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Technologies addressing both arsenic and microbial contamination of Bengal groundwater are needed. Fe electrocoagulation (Fe-EC), a simple process relying on the dissolution of an Fe(0) anode to produce Fe(III) precipitates, has been shown to efficiently remove arsenic from groundwater at low cost. We investigated Escherichia coli (E. coli) attenuation by Fe-EC in synthetic Bengal groundwater as a function of Fe dosage rate, total Fe dosed, pH, and presence of natural organic matter (NOM). A 2.5 mM Fe dosage simultaneously achieved over 4-log E. coli attenuation and arsenic removal from 450 to below 10 μg/L. E. coli reduction was significantly enhanced at pH 6.6 compared to pH 7.5, which we linked to the decreased rate of Fe(II) oxidation at lower pH. 3 mg/L-C of NOM (Suwanee River fulvic acid) did not significantly affect E. coli attenuation. Live-dead staining and comparisons of Fe-EC with chemical coagulation controls showed that the primary mechanism of E. coli attenuation is physical removal with Fe(III) precipitates, with inactivation likely contributing as well at lower pH. Transmission electron microscopy showed that EC precipitates adhere to and bridge individual E. coli cells, resulting in large bacteria-Fe aggregates that can be removed by gravitational settling. Our results point to the promising ability of Fe-EC to treat arsenic and bacterial contamination simultaneously at low cost.

Understanding influential factors for fecal contamination in groundwater is critical for ensuring water safety and public health. The objective of this study is to identify key factors for fecal contamination of shallow tubewells using machine learning methods. Three methods, including recursive feature elimination (RFE) with XGBoost, Random Forest, and mutual information, were implemented to examine E. coli presence and concentration in 1495 tubewell water samples in Matlab, Bangladesh. For E. coli presence, climatic variables, including average rainfall and temperature over the 30, 15, and 7 days preceding sampling, as well as ambient temperature and rainfall on the sampling day, emerged as critical predictors. Land cover characteristics, such as the percentages of urban and agricultural areas within 100 m of a tubewell, were also significant. For E. coli concentration, land cover characteristics within 100 m, the number of hot and heavy-rain days in the 30 days preceding sampling, average rainfall and temperature in the 3 days preceding sampling, and ambient temperature on the sampling day were identified as key drivers. Random Forest and mutual information yielded results that were more similar to each other than to those of RFE with XGBoost. The findings highlight the interplay between climatic factors, land use, and population density in determining fecal contamination in shallow well water and demonstrate the power of machine learning algorithms in ranking these factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sanitation, which offers safe and effective methods for waste disposal, is important for development. However, in Africa and other developing regions, the prevalent practice of open defecation (OD) impedes attaining the sustainable development goals (SDGs). This research delves into the analysis of OD in Africa and proposes a three-tier priority system, comprising critical, high, and medium areas, through which developmental endeavours can be targeted. To achieve this, the study utilizes data from demographic and health surveys (DHS) and the World Bank. The rates of OD at country and sub-country/region levels were calculated to define the priority system, and regression analyses were used to determine predictors of OD practice. The findings are that Nigeria, Ethiopia, Niger, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Burkina Faso, and Chad have a high number of people struggling with open defecation. In addition, disparities in access to proper sanitation facilities were identified among impoverished individuals and those residing in rural areas. After adjusting for education and residence, the poorest are 43 times (95% confidence interval 42.443–45.290) more likely to practice open defecation in comparison with the wealthiest. Consequently, wealth index is a pivotal factor in eradicating open toileting. To address this pressing issue in Africa, it is imperative to prioritize evidence-based targeted interventions that concentrate on regions and communities urgently needing improved sanitation infrastructure and programmes. Special attention should be paid to West Africa since many of its communities are in the critical category. Poverty and inequality must be addressed and investments in sanitation infrastructure, behavioural change promotion, and support multistakeholder collaborations should be encouraged. To evaluate OD interventions and monitor health impact, variables such as antimicrobial resistance (AMR) should be included in important health surveys (e.g. DHS). This study is the largest meta-data analyses of OD in Africa detailing drivers and communities that should be prioritised on sanitation interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mixed-valent iron nanoparticles (NP) generated electrochemically by Fe(0) electrocoagulation (EC) show promise for on-demand industrial and drinking water treatment in engineered systems. This work applies multiple characterization techniques (in situ Raman spectroscopy, XRD, SEM, and cryo-TEM) to investigate the formation and persistence of magnetite and green rust (GR) NP phases produced via the Fe(0) EC process. Current density and background electrolyte composition were examined in a controlled anaerobic system to determine the initial Fe phases generated as well as transformation products with aging. Fe phases were characterized in an aerobic EC system with both simple model electrolytes and real groundwater to investigate the formation and aging of Fe phases produced in a system representing treatment of arsenic-contaminated ground waters in South Asia. Two central pathways for magnetite production via Fe(0) EC were identified: (i) as a primary product (formation within seconds when DO absent, no intermediates detected) and (ii) as a transformation product of GR (from minutes to days depending on pH, electrolyte composition, and aging conditions). This study provides a better understanding of the formation conditions of magnetite, GR, and ferric (oxyhydr)oxides in Fe EC, which is essential for process optimization for varying source waters.

Millions of people in rural South Asia are exposed to high levels of arsenic through groundwater used for drinking. Many deployed arsenic remediation technologies quickly fail because they are not maintained, repaired, accepted, or affordable. It is therefore imperative that arsenic remediation technologies be evaluated for their ability to perform within a sustainable and scalable business model that addresses these challenges. We present field trial results of a 600 L Electro-Chemical Arsenic Remediation (ECAR) reactor operating over 3.5 months in West Bengal. These results are evaluated through the lens of a community scale micro-utility business model as a potential sustainable and scalable safe water solution for rural communities in South Asia. We demonstrate ECAR's ability to consistently reduce arsenic concentrations of ~266 μg/L to <5 μg/L in real groundwater, simultaneously meeting the international standards for iron and aluminum in drinking water. ECAR operating costs (amortized capital plus consumables) are estimated as $0.83-$1.04/m(3) under realistic conditions. We discuss the implications of these results against the constraints of a sustainable and scalable business model to argue that ECAR is a promising technology to help provide a clean water solution in arsenic-affected areas of South Asia., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Access to sanitation has become an important element for improving the health of populations in developing countries. In Burkina Faso, 12% of the population in rural areas has access to latrine and 65% practice open defecation (OD). In a bid to eliminate this unsanitary practice and enhance sanitation access in rural areas, the government embraced community-led total sanitation (CLTS) as a national strategy in 2014. However, more than 6 years later, a notable observation is the high abandonment rate, with only a small fraction of rural communities successfully eradicating OD. Out of the 8892 villages in the country, 3546 underwent a CLTS triggering from 2014 to 2020. Nevertheless, in 787 of these villages, the implementation of the CLTS approach was abandoned, indicating a substantial abandonment rate of 22.19%. Until now, most studies on CLTS have focused on the post-ODF phase, emphasizing the question of the sustainability of the results generated by the approach, as if the process from triggering to obtaining ODF certification was not subject to any problems. However, cases of abandonment of the CLTS process after triggering do exist, although poorly documented in the literature, and there are no studies that clearly assign responsibilities to the actors when CLTS implementation comes to be abandoned. This research aims to bridge these gaps by identifying the root causes of these abandonment cases while delineating the distinct responsibilities associated with these instances. To achieve this, the study was conducted in the Central-Western region of Burkina Faso, where all stakeholders involved in CLTS implementation, including target communities, were identified, their different roles in the process defined, and data collected through household surveys, interviews, and focus groups. The content analysis method was used to analyze the data. The research findings indicate that the abandonment of the CLTS implementation process is due to four categories of factors: sociocultural and economic aspects (39.78%), physical conditions (17.52%), governance aspects (26.28%), and the quality of approach implementation (16.42%). Moreover, these factors highlight a shared accountability for abandonment involving the government, implementing organizations, and target communities. These findings have significant implications for the future design of sanitation programs using the CLTS approach. To mitigate abandonment rates in the CLTS implementation process across rural communities, it is imperative for policymakers to attentively consider these factors and integrate the recommendations delineated in this study., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Inadequate sanitation has catastrophic consequences for public health, standard of living, and productivity, as well as gender equality and social inclusion. Urban sanitation programmes yield suboptimal outcomes regarding long-term impact, effectiveness, sustainability, and fairness. To ensure that all urban dwellers in Low- to Middle-Income Countries (LMICs) have access to sanitation facilities that are properly maintained and safe, it is crucial to bring about a fundamental change in the urban sanitation sector through the implementation of Citywide Inclusive Sanitation (CWIS). This research analyses the sanitation regulatory framework and stakeholders' perspectives in Bandung City, Indonesia. The goal is to determine the possible obstacles and advantages of implementing a comprehensive CWIS (Citywide Inclusive Sanitation) system in Indonesia. The CWIS idea has been recognised at the national level in Indonesia. While existing legislation and policies partially govern and deal with CWIS components, there is no official programme establishment yet and limited implementation at the local level. Some challenges that have been identified include conflicting priorities in serving marginalised populations, a lack of political commitment and capacity to provide comprehensive services for all types of domestic wastewater (including grey water) and throughout the entire sanitation service chain (from containment to treatment and/or reuse and recovery), inadequate knowledge management and data transparency, a lack of incentives and penalties for local governments to meet sanitation standards, and limited motivation for meaningful and institutionalised private sector involvement. This study also delineates four crucial domains for efficiently fostering the deployment of CWIS in Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthrax is a notorious disease of public health importance caused by Bacillus anthracis. The causative agent can also be used as a biological weapon. Spores of these bacteria can sustain extreme environmental conditions and remain viable in soil for decades. Domestic and wild ruminants are highly susceptible to this pathogen, which usually presents as a peracute to acute disease. In humans, cutaneous anthrax is frequent but pulmonary and enteric anthrax are more serious. Humans, animals, and the environment are all involved, making anthrax a perfect target for a One Health approach. The environment plays a key role in disease transmission. At a time when the One Health concept is not mere slogans, collaborative efforts of medical professionals, veterinarians, and environmental scientists will be valuable for the prevention and control of this disease. In this review, we discussed the transmission dynamics of anthrax in the environment, animals, and humans, as well as One Health strategies to control and prevent anthrax. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Access to clean water is fundamental to public health and safety, serving as the cornerstone of well-being in communities. Despite the significant investments of millions of dollars in water testing and treatment processes, the United States continues to grapple with over 7 million waterborne-related cases annually. This persistent challenge underscores the pressing need for the development of a new, efficient, rapid, low-cost, and reliable method for ensuring water quality. The urgency of this endeavor cannot be overstated, as it holds the potential to safeguard countless lives and mitigate the pervasive risks associated with contaminated water sources. In this study, we introduce a biochip LAMP assay tailored for water source monitoring. Our method swiftly detects even extremely low concentrations of Escherichia coli (E. coli) in water, and 10 copies/μL of E. coli aqueous solution could yield positive results within 15 min on a PC-MEDA biochip. This innovation marks a significant departure from the current reliance on lab-dependent methods, which typically necessitate several days for bacterial culture and colony counting. Our multifunctional biochip system not only enables the real-time LAMP testing of crude E. coli samples but also holds promise for future modifications to facilitate on-site usage, thereby revolutionizing water quality assessment and ensuring rapid responses to potential contamination events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Liposarcoma, one of the most prevalent sarcoma histologies, is recognized for its tendency for extra-pulmonary metastases. While oligometastatic cardiac disease is rarely reported, it poses a unique challenge as oligometastatic sarcomas are often managed with surgical resection. Case Report: We present a case of a 62-year-old man diagnosed with an oligometastatic myxoid liposarcoma (MLPS) to the heart 19 years after the primary tumor resection from the lower limb. The metastatic mass, situated in the pericardium adjacent and infiltrating the left ventricle, was not managed surgically but with a combination of chemotherapy and radiotherapy. The patient's disease remains stable to date, for more than 10 years. Literature Review: We conducted a review of the literature to determine the preferred management approach for solitary cardiac metastases of sarcomas. We also conducted an in-depth analysis focusing on reported cases of MLPS metastasizing to the heart, aiming to extract pertinent data regarding the patient characteristics and the corresponding management strategies. Conclusions: Although clinical diagnoses of solitary or oligometastatic cardiac metastases from sarcomas are infrequent, this case underscores the significance of aggressive management employing chemotherapy and radiotherapy for chemosensitive and radiosensitive sarcomas, especially when surgical removal is high-risk. Furthermore, it challenges the notion that surgery is the exclusive therapeutic option leading to long-term clinical benefit in patients with recurrent sarcomas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A causal relationship between treatment with tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) at therapeutic doses and cases of dilated cardiomyopathy has been suspected, but not definitely evidenced. We present a case of a dilated cardiomyopathy, which seemed idiopathic, but occurred during treatment with imipramine and recovered after its withdrawal. For the first recorded time, the cardiomyopathy recurred 9 years later, after a 2-year period of treatment with amitriptyline and lithium, and recovered again 1 year after both psychotropic drugs withdrawal. New arguments for the existence of TCA-induced dilated cardiomyopathy are brought.

Malignant tumours of the heart and pericardium are rare. Secondary tumours are 20 to 40 times more common than primary tumours. The authors report the case of a cardiac metastasis of a myxoid liposarcoma of the inguinal region. Surgical ablation with chemotherapy significantly improved the patient' clinical and haemodynamic status. A review of the literature shows that postoperative survival does not exceed 2 years, but the prognosis is better when chemotherapy is associated with surgery. Transoesophageal echocardiography is an excellent diagnostic imaging method. It provides a better evaluation of the tumour and its location, compared to thoracic CT scan and transthoracic echocardiography.

Pit latrines are the most common household sanitation system in East African cities. Urbanisation reduces the space available for new latrines to be constructed when pits fill and they increasingly require emptying. But formal services that empty and transport sludge to safe disposal or treatment are often unaffordable to low-income households. Cross-subsidies have been suggested to fund services for low-income households but there are no academic studies assessing this funding mechanism. This study analyses empirical financial and operational data shared by a formal service provider in Kigali, Rwanda who is establishing a cross-subsidy model between corporate and high-income households, and low-income households in informal settlements. A semi-mechanical method is used to serve households which cannot be accessed from the road by an exhauster truck. We find that mechanical emptying is gross profitable when exhauster trucks are fully used, particularly large volume and corporate customers. Transferring sludge between vehicles for efficient transport reduces average cost. Cross-subsidies are found to be a viable funding method and a ten-fold increase in mechanical emptying by the service provider would generate 466,876 Int$ (2022 international dollars) gross profit to fund a cross-subsidy for all low-income households in Kigali which require semi-mechanical emptying. This study highlights the opportunities that city authorities have to organise funding to cross-subsidise emptying for low-income households. In addition, by using data from operational records rather than self-reported estimates the reliability of cost estimates is in improved. Further research is required to understand customer group size, demand and emptying frequencies to determine the structure of a citywide cross-subsidy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the critical issue of water insecurity and its multifaceted impact on and relationship to the human rights and environmental justice conditions within Rohingya refugee camps located in New Delhi, India. A comprehensive mixed-methods approach was employed to investigate water-related challenges within a refugee camp in Madanpur Khadar, region in Delhi. Qualitative methods including focused group discussions and one-on-one household interviews were conducted to allow residents' perceptions from diverse groups and examine their experiences. Structured surveys were administered to gather quantitative data on water access, sanitation, health, and socio-economic factors. Additionally,, literature surveys and document archival research provided contextual insights. This study underscores the pressing water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH) challenges faced by Rohingya refugees in the area, revealing irregular water supply, impacting residents' daily lives and hygiene practices. The majority of families in the camp, with an average of 6 members in each family, can only collect 30–40 L of water to meet all their needs, from consumption to personal hygiene, which is significantly insufficient. This situation has resulted in severe health consequences for the camp residents. Alarmingly, over 90% of the female respondents reported experiencing issues such as urinary infections. This paper gives a comprehensive analysis of the multidimensionality of rights that intersect with and are affected by WaSH issues. The poor WaSH conditions in the camp directly hinder the fulfillment of fundamental human rights. It not only disrupts the basic sanitation need but has negative economic repercussions and causes mental distress. This study concludes by targeted recommendations aimed at improving the conditions prevailing within the camp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Open Defecation Free (ODF) program was initiated by the government to increase access to healthy latrines. This study aimed to evaluate the ODF program using the CIPP evaluation model. A qualitative and exploratory descriptive method was adopted to investigate informants' experiences regarding the program's implementation. Data was explored through semi-structured interviews with 17 informants and analyzed using content analysis. The results showed that the program was crucial as numerous people engaged in open defecation due to economic, geographical, cultural, and knowledge factors. The absence of ODF policy was due to lack of priority, limited government and private support, insufficient human resources, inadequate infrastructure, and budget constraints. The ODF program was considered unimportant and tended to follow stunting programs, reflecting the low commitment. The biggest opportunity was implementing an integrated ODF with a stunting reduction program by allocating a special budget. Thus, primary health care is expected to optimize activities further to trigger the ODF program within the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing access to water quality tests in low-income communities is a crucial strategy toward achieving global water equality. Recent studies in the Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) sector underscore the importance of addressing practical concerns in water testing, such as robustness and results communication. In response, we present the WaterScope testing kit; an open-source, validated platform for drinking water quality assessment. It modernises the testing process with the inclusion of a unique cartridge/slider mechanism, machine-learning-enhanced classification and full digitalisation of results. WaterScope's equivalency to conventional methods for quantifying E. coli is established through extensive validation experiments in both laboratory and field environments. This versatile platform provides potential to expand its applications to test other bacteria, perform colorimetric assays, and analyse clinical samples such as blood/urine samples. We anticipate that the system's ease-of-use, portability, affordability, robustness, and digital nature will accelerate progress toward global water equality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the development of various Lewis acidic nano-adsorbents for fluoride removal through inner-sphere coordination, strong competition for hydroxyl ions still hinders efficient water defluoridation. In addition, the critical issue of polysilicate scaling that results from the ubiquitous silicates must be addressed. To tackle these issues, an alternative approach to enhancing adsorption reactivity by modifying nano-adsorbents with dual Lewis and Brønsted acidity is proposed. The feasibility of this approach is demonstrated by growing zirconium phosphate (ZrP) inside a gel-type anion exchanger, N201, to produce nanocomposite ZrP@N201, in which the confined ZrP contained an otherwise metastable amorphous phase with Lewis acidic Zr4+ sites and Brønsted acidic monohydrogen phosphate groups (–O3POH). Compared with the Lewis acidic nano-zirconium oxide analog (HZO@N201), ZrP@N201 exhibited a greatly improved adsorption capacity (117.9 vs. 52.3 mg/g-Zr) and mass transfer rate (3.56 × 10−6vs. 4.55 × 10−7 cm/s), while bulk ZrP produced a thermodynamically stable α-phase with Brønsted acidity that exhibited negligible adsorption capability toward fluoride. The enhanced defluoridation activity of ZrP@N201 is attributed to Brønsted acidity and the increased outer electron density of Zr4+ sites, as corroborated using XPS and solid-state NMR analysis. Moreover, Brønsted acidity strengthens the resistance of ZrP@N201 to silicate, allowing its full regeneration during cyclic defluoridation. Column tests demonstrated 3–10 times the amount of clean water from (waste) for ZrP@N201 as compared to both HZO@N201 and the widely used activated aluminum oxide. This study highlights the potential of developing nano-adsorbents with dual acidities for various environmental remediation applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Safe access to drinking water and sanitation is a human right and a key goal of sustainable development, which must also be achieved in rural areas. This work proposes and simulates the application of a conceptual model for a basic sanitation safety plan tailored for rural areas, called the Rural Basic Sanitation Safety Plan (RBSSP). The methodology includes technical and scientific review approaches, followed by consultation with specialists through the Delphi method and simulation in a case study. The RBSSP framework includes six fundamental principles, six steps, and twenty actions to be performed. In the case study, the final conceptual model application was simulated for a rural settlement scenario, which led to significant changes in the actions, subdivisions and phases. Key findings highlight that community participation, involvement and empowerment are the most relevant factors for successful implementation. The necessary tools for RBSSP preparation, such as risk assessment methodologies and management plans, must be applied considering the scenario. Finally, after simulating the conceptual model, we conclude that it is necessary to adapt actions and apply methods and techniques developed and appropriate for rural areas to develop an effective RBSSP for each specific scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water is an indispensable resource crucial for sustaining life even though projections indicate that by 2025, over 3 billion people will inhabit water-stressed regions, with 14 countries transitioning from water stress to water scarcity. This study investigates the influence of financial planning based on financial control and decision-making on water availability for domestic use in the Pangani Basin, Tanzania. The research examines the interconnectedness between financial planning and water availability outcomes through a mixed-method approach, combining quantitative analysis and qualitative insights from key informants. Quantitative findings reveal a significant positive correlation between financial planning and domestic water availability (β = 0.377, p < 0.001), emphasising the importance of effective financial control particularly on budgeting and its proper use for improving infrastructure. Likewise, stakeholders' participation in the decision-making process is important for water resource management. The study highlights the importance of effective financial control and decision-making to ensure sustainable access to clean water for local communities. The study recommends that the Pangani Basin Water Institute emphasise proper use of financial resources for water infrastructure and prioritise stakeholder engagement in decision-making processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Access to improved sanitation is a fundamental human right and an important aspect of Public Health. However, an estimated thousands of people in Ghana especially, the West Mamprusi Municipal Assembly (WMMA) still have no access to adequate toilet facilities. This has brought untold health repercussions to the inhabitants, the community, and the environment at large. To address this menace, the community-led total sanitation (CLTS) was implemented. This study aimed to assess communities' perspectives on the implementation of CLTS and to understand the factors influencing its success and failures. Methods: A mixed-method approach involving sequential qualitative and quantitative methods was employed in this study. Participants for the quantitative study were randomly selected and surveyed using questionnaires. The qualitative study employed focus group discussion involving purposively sampled participants including assembly members, opinion leaders, and assembly staff. Results: The CLTS program in WMMA realized an apparent use of construction and proper use of household latrines leading to a reduction of open defecation free (ODF) and two communities achieving sanitized status in the history of the study area, enabling the training of latrine artisans and natural leaders to facilitate the CLTS expansion and sustainability, improved sanitation and hygiene, strengthened the enforcement of community rules and regulations and many others. Conclusion: The CLTS program has received more widespread acceptance in the study area than the previous government policy of constructing public toilets, which was greeted with massive failures due to poor implementation. To ensure that gains achieved through CLTS implementation are sustained longer, it is recommended that chiefs and opinion leaders should be involved in the CLTS programs to ensure checks and enforcement. The entrenchment of bylaws and more education to address enduring myths and misconceptions will sustain the program. Subsidies in the form of sanitation loans for latrine construction materials by the government and supporting non-governmental organizations (NGOs) will be paramount in sustaining ODF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In communities where people lack on-demand, safely managed drinking water, stored household water often becomes contaminated by fecal bacteria, regardless of the source-water quality. The objectives of this paper are to assess and control bacterial contamination in stored household water in Toamasina, a rapidly urbanizing city in eastern coastal Madagascar. We collected samples of source water and stored household water from 10 representative households that use different water sources and different storage strategies, and we analyzed the samples for several fecal indicator bacteria. We also tested three methods that residents of Toamasina could realistically employ for cleaning their household water storage vessels, assessing the effect of the cleaning methods on measured bacterial levels in the water. Consistent with the previous literature, we found that concentrations of total coliforms in stored household water were significantly higher than in the corresponding source water (p < 0.05). In 100% of households that stored their water in 20 L polyethylene jerrycans (n = 4), biofilms on the walls of the jerrycan harbored total coliforms and Enterococcus. The use of a closed storage container was, on its own, not found to provide a meaningful protective effect against bacterial regrowth; to be protective, closed storage containers must be combined with high-quality source water and/or with adequate cleaning to prevent biofilm formation. A dilute solution of sodium hypochlorite, known locally as Sûr'Eau or Manadio Rano, was both the most effective and the least expensive method for cleaning household water storage containers. We conclude that regular and effective cleaning of storage containers is an essential component of safe water storage. Because household storage of collected water is common in many low- and middle-income countries, these results are important towards the worldwide achievement of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal 6. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]