Crossing the Rivers by Touching the Stones: Alternative Approaches in Technical and Vocational Education and Training from the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Korea

Purpose: This study aims to answer the following questions: (1) Why have attempts to transplant Western vocational education models failed? (2) Is there anything we can learn from the experiences of Eastern Asian countries when developing their own vocational education models? Design/Approach/Methods: This study reviews the history of transplanting Western skill formation schemes into developing countries, an often-failed die-hard practice supported by both bilateral and multilateral donors. Findings: Our findings suggest that developing countries should design their technical and vocational education and training systems based on their unique cultural, sociological, and economic contexts. It offers two alternative pathways based on the experiences of the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Korea. Originality/Value: These East Asian examples could broaden the perspectives of policymakers in developing countries aspiring to develop functional skill formation schemes.