Jurassic spark: Mapping the genomes of birds and other dinosaurs

The ultimate aim of a genome assembly is to create a contiguous length of sequence from the p- to q- terminus of each chromosome. Most assemblies are however highly fragmented, limiting their use in studies of gene mapping, phylogenomics and genomic organisation. To overcome these limitations, we developed a novel scaffold-to-chromosome anchoring method combining reference-assisted chromosome assembly (RACA) and fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) to position scaffolds from de novo genomes onto chromosomes. Using RACA, scaffolds were ordered and orientated into ‘predicted chromosome fragments’ (PCFs) against a reference and outgroup genome. PCFs were verified using PCR prior to FISH mapping. A universal set of FISH probes developed through the selection of conserved regions were then used to map PCFs of peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus Tunstall, 1771), pigeon (Columba livia Gmelin, 1789), ostrich (Struthio camelus Linnaeus, 1758), saker falcon (Falco cherrug Gray, 1834) the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus Shaw, 1805). Using this approach, we were able to improve the N50 of genomes seven-fold. Results revealed that Interchromosomal breakpoint regions are limited to regions with low sequence conservation, shedding light on why most avian species have very stable karyotypes. Our combined FISH and bioinformatics approach represents a step-change in the mapping of genome assemblies, allowing comparative genomic research at a higher resolution than was previously possible. The universal probe set facilitates research into avian karyotype evolution and the role of chromosome rearrangements in adaptation and phenotypic diversity in birds. Indeed, they have been used on over 20 avian species plus non-avian reptiles (including turtles), shedding light into the evolution of dinosaur species. Non-avian dinosaurs remain subjects of intense biological enquiry while pervading popular culture and the creative arts. While organismal studies focus primarily on their morph