Plant–insect interactions from the Late Pennsylvanian of the Iberian Peninsula (León, northern Spain)

We describe new evidences of plant-insect interactions from the Late Pennsylvanian of northern Iberian Peninsula (Leon, Spain). We document nine different Damage Types (DTs) among 216 fossil plant specimens. The interactions include four different Functional Feeding Groups (FFGs), including margin feeding (DT12 and DT13), hole feeding (DT09), galling (DT33, DT80, and DT116), and oviposition (DT67, DT100, and DT102) on Pteridophytes, Pteridospermatophytes, and Coniferophytes. Margin feeding and hole feeding were identified on different species of Polymorphopteris (P. polymorpha, P. cf. pseudobucklandii, and P. integra); galling on Mixoneura wagneri, Pecopteris apicalis, and Oligocarpia gutbieri; and oviposition on Polymorphopteris integra, Cordaites cf. angulostriatus and Polymorphopteris cf. integra. The oviposition scars represent the oldest record of oviposition from the Iberian Peninsula so far. In addition, it is the first evidence of plant-insect interactions on Oligocarpia and Polymorphopteris leaves in the area. These evidences reveal various ecological interactions between different groups of plants and insects in the Late Pennsylvanian forests of Spain, suggesting that these plants were a relevant source of food and lodge for a variety of arthropods (mainly insects). We also explore the possible culprits of these damages and the climatic implications.