Nanocrystalline rhenium-doped TiO2: an efficient catalyst in the one-pot conversion of carbohydrates into levulinic acid. The synergistic effect between Brønsted and Lewis acid sites

Catalytic activity of TiO2, 2%Re–TiO2 and 10%Re–TiO2 in the conversion of carbohydrates into levulinic acid under autoclave conditions was evaluated. These materials were prepared by aerogel method, for the first time to the best of our knowledge, and characterized by XPS, SEM-EDX, DRIFTS, DR UV-vis, Raman, N2 adsorption/desorption isotherms, TGA and XRD. Further, the surface acidity was probed by NH3-TPD and pyridine-FT-IR where it was observed that increasing the amount of rhenium doped into TiO2 led to an increase in the total number of acid sites (Lewis + Brønsted) but with an overall lower strength. The presence of both Brønsted and Lewis acid sites led to the hypothesis that these materials may be well suited for conversion of carbohydrates into levulinic acid. Indeed a levulinic acid yield of 57% was reached over 10%Re–TiO2 for a low mass ratio catalyst to glucose (1 : 5). Moreover, the 10%Re–TiO2 catalyst was reused in the conversion of glucose for four catalytic cycles without a significant loss of the catalytic activity.