Lead provenance study in medieval metallic materials from Madinat al-Zahra (Medina Azahara, Córdoba)

The objective of this study is to provide insight into the origin of the lead present in the 10th-century. AD Islamic city of Madinat al-Zahra, both as unalloyed metal and as a component of the copper-based alloys, as well as a first approach to technological details related to the production of these materials. Recycling lead is argued to be a common practice but, nonetheless, the lead isotope analysis suggests a single origin for all the lead at the site. Two main options are discussed as lead sources: mines in the Linares district (100 km east) or in Villanueva del Duque (75 km north). Other interesting features are the use of lead-tin solder and fire gilding on a copper–zinc alloy.