The effects of principle-based information on the sequence of pairing worked examples and problems in physics learning

The contents and appropriateness of instructional explanations in a worked example may determine the occurrence of the worked example effect. When a worked example involves principle-based information as instructional explanations, it may induce learners to spontaneously self-explain the subsequent solution steps and thereby enhance their performance. Advocates of minimally-guided instruction claim that scaffolded problem solving followed by direct instruction such as worked examples outperform the reverse sequencing instruction, entirely contradicting the expectation of cognitive load theory. Three experiments investigated the effects of worked examples involving principle-based information/guidance on physics learning and the accuracy of assertion made by the advocates of minimally-guided instruction using strictly randomized and controlled experimental designs. Experiment 1 investigated the effect of level and location of guidance in a worked example. The results demonstrated the overall advantage of an example-problem sequence over the reverse sequence and indicated that presenting instances of principle application in worked examples could facilitate learning for less knowledgeable learners. Experiment 2 investigated the performance of less knowledgeable learners who studied the same problem in the same learning phase except for the instructional form (i.e., worked example or problem solving) and solved the problem with or without principle-based guidance on immediate and delayed tests. The results demonstrated that principle guidance in the problem-solving phase of the problem-example sequence could reduce cognitive load relative to the equivalent condition without such guidance during the learning phase. However, this reduction of load did not translate to an advantage on other learning indicators in the problem-example sequence compared to the reverse sequence. Experiment 3 compared the effect of different levels of scaffolding in problem solving (from entir