Advances in surface-enhanced vibrational spectroscopy at electrochemical interfaces

Electrochemical interfaces are ubiquitous, and characterisation tools that allow us to interrogate them on the molecular scale underpin a wide range of technologies. Because of their dynamic nature, in situ or operando measurement is often necessary, and the coupling of electrochemical techniques with spectroscopic methods is a powerful solution to this challenge. Vibrational spectroscopy in particular can provide important insights into the chemical nature of species adsorbed at electrode surfaces. When combined with electrochemistry, the influence of a potential perturbation to the interface can be studied, helping to build a complete picture of molecular processes in complex electrochemical systems. Here, we review the latest advances in vibrational spectroscopy at electrochemical interfaces, with a focus on surface-enhanced approaches including surface-enhanced Raman scattering, shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy.