The Vindolanda Vessel: pXRF and Microphotography of an Enamel-Painted Roman Gladiator Glass

Roman glass is well studied and known to have been produced from a mineral soda source and calcareous sand with variation between elements relating to naturally occurring minerals in the sands. While the common characteristics of colourants and opacifiers used in opaque and translucent glasses are well understood, the diverse elemental composition of colouring agents associated with the highly specialised, and largely unexplored, technique of enamel-painted glass has never been firmly established. There remains a significant gap in knowledge of pigments used for this technological innovation which is here addressed through the deployment of non-invasive portable X-ray Flourescence (pXRF) analysis and microphotography on a unique Roman enamel-painted gladiator glass from Vindolanda fort. This vanguard research has successfully established, for the first time, a palette of pigments associated with this specialist technique. It is now possible to unravel previously unknown information on complex manufacturing processes and significantly expand the repertoire of the pigments bound up in enamelling recipes used to depict the striking iconographic scenes on the Vindolanda vessel and, potentially, other Roman enamelled glassware. The detection of Cinnabar, Egyptian blue, Orpiment and other pigments are ground-breaking discoveries that will have a transformative impact on early glassmaking studies and push the boundaries of scholarship into new directions of analytical approaches in heritage materials science to complement recent success in this field with Raman spectroscopy and other techniques. The methodology is unprecedented and has been validated through the high quality of the resulting data which permits the extrapolation of elemental compositions of enamelling materials from those associated with the base vessel. This unique approach provides remarkable insights that will revolutionise our understanding of enamelling technologies using the Vindolanda vessel as the investigative platform for forgotten practice.