Terrestrial ion escape and relevant circulation in space

Observations of the terrestrial ion escape to space and the transport of escaping ions in the magnetosphere are reviewed, with the main stress on subjects that were not covered in reviews over past 2 decades, during which Cluster has significantly improved our knowledge of them. Here, outflowing ions from the ionosphere are classified in terms of energy rather than location: (1) as cold ions refilling the plasmasphere faster than Jeans escape, (2) as cold supersonic ions such as the polar wind, and (3) as suprathermal ions energized by wave–particle interaction or parallel potential acceleration, mainly starting from cold supersonic ions. The majority of the suprathermal ions above the ionosphere become “hot” at high altitudes, with much higher velocity than the escape velocity even for heavy ions. This makes heavy hot ions more abundant in the magnetosphere than heavy ions transported by cold refilling ions or cold supersonic flow. The immediate destination of these terrestrial ions varies from the plasmasphere, the inner magnetosphere including those entering the ionosphere in the other hemisphere and the tailward outer boundaries, the magnetotail, and the solar wind (magnetosheath, cusp, and plasma mantle). Due to time-variable return from the magnetotail, ions with different routes and energy meet in the inner magnetosphere, making it a zoo of different types of ions in both energy and energy distribution. While the mass-independent drift theory has successfully disentangled this zoo of ions, there are many poorly understood phenomena, e.g., mass-dependent energization. Half of the heavy ions in this zoo also finally escape to space, mainly due to magnetopause shadowing (overshooting of ion drift beyond the magnetopause) and charge exchange near the mirror altitude where the exospheric neutral density is at its highest. The amount of heavy ions mixing directly with the solar wind is already the same as or larger than that entering into the magnetotail and is large enough to extract the solar wind kinetic energy in the cusp–plasma mantle through the mass-loading effect and drive the current system near the cusp independently of the global current system. Considering the past solar and solar wind conditions, ion escape might even have influenced the evolution of the terrestrial biosphere.