Transcriptomic Profile of Penicillium digitatum Reveals Novel Aspects of the Mode of Action of the Antifungal Protein AfpB

ABSTRACT Antifungal proteins (AFPs) from filamentous fungi are promising biomolecules to control fungal pathogens. Understanding their biological role and mode of action is essential for their future application. AfpB from the citrus fruit pathogen Penicillium digitatum is highly active against fungal phytopathogens, including its native fungus. Our previous data showed that AfpB acts through a multitargeted three-stage process: interaction with the outer mannosylated cell wall, energy-dependent cell internalization, and intracellular actions that result in cell death. Here, we extend these findings by characterizing the functional role of AfpB and its interaction with P. digitatum through transcriptomic studies. For this, we compared the transcriptomic response of AfpB-treated P. digitatum wild type, a ΔafpB mutant, and an AfpB-overproducing strain. Transcriptomic data suggest a multifaceted role for AfpB. Data from the ΔafpB mutant suggested that the afpB gene contributes to the overall homeostasis of the cell. Additionally, these data showed that AfpB represses toxin-encoding genes, and they suggest a link to apoptotic processes. Gene expression and knockout mutants confirmed that genes coding for acetolactate synthase (ALS) and acetolactate decarboxylase (ALD), which belong to the acetoin biosynthetic pathway, contribute to the inhibitory activity of AfpB. Moreover, a gene encoding a previously uncharacterized extracellular tandem repeat peptide (TRP) protein showed high induction in the presence of AfpB, whereas its TRP monomer enhanced AfpB activity. Overall, our study offers a rich source of information to further advance in the characterization of the multifaceted mode of action of AFPs. IMPORTANCE Fungal infections threaten human health worldwide and have a negative impact on food security, damaging crop production and causing animal diseases. At present, only a few classes of fungicides are available due to the complexity of targeting fungi without affecting plant, animal, or human hosts. Moreover, the intensive use of fungicides in agriculture has led to the development of resistance. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop antifungal biomolecules with new modes of action to fight human-, animal-, and plant-pathogenic fungi. Fungal antifungal proteins (AFPs) offer great potential as new biofungicides to control deleterious fungi. However, current knowledge about their killing mechanism is still limited, which hampers their potential applicability. AfpB from P. digitatum is a promising molecule with potent and specific fungicidal activity. This study further characterizes its mode of action, opening avenues for the development of new antifungals.