City-scale monitoring of antibiotic resistance genes by digital PCR and metagenomics

Abstract Background Anthropogenic activities significantly contribute to the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), posing a substantial threat to humankind. The development of methods that allow robust ARG surveillance is a long-standing challenge. Here, we use city-scale monitoring of ARGs by using two of the most promising cutting-edge technologies, digital PCR (dPCR) and metagenomics. Methods ARG hot-spots were sampled from the urban water and wastewater distribution systems. Metagenomics was used to provide a broad view of ARG relative abundance and richness in the prokaryotic and viral fractions. From the city-core ARGs in all samples, the worldwide dispersed sul2 and tetW conferring resistance to sulfonamide and tetracycline, respectively, were monitored by dPCR and metagenomics. Results The largest relative overall ARG abundance and richness were detected in the hospital wastewater and the WWTP inlet (up to ≈6,000 ARGs/Gb metagenome) with a large fraction of unclassified resistant bacteria. The abundance of ARGs in DNA and RNA contigs classified as viruses was notably lower, demonstrating a reduction of up to three orders of magnitude compared to contigs associated to prokaryotes. By metagenomics and dPCR, a similar abundance tendency of sul2 and tetW was obtained, with higher abundances in hospital wastewater and WWTP input (≈125–225 ARGs/Gb metagenome). dPCR absolute abundances were between 6,000 and 18,600 copies per ng of sewage DNA (≈105–7 copies/mL) and 6.8 copies/mL in seawater near the WWTP discharging point. Conclusions dPCR was more sensitive and accurate, while metagenomics provided broader coverage of ARG detection. While desirable, a reliable correlation of dPCR absolute abundance units into metagenomic relative abundance units was not obtained here (r2